Who wrote the first college textbook on public relations?

1913 Ludlow Massacre establishes value of corporate public relations 1923 Edward L. Bernays publishes Crystallizing Public Opinion, first book on professional public relations.

What was the name of the first book to outline the theory and practice of public relations?

In 1923 he wrote the first PR textbook, Crystallizing Public Opinion , and in the same year set up the first PR course at New York University. Bernays was a pioneer of modern propaganda techniques and applied theories of mass psychology and persuasion to the needs of corporate and political organisations.

Who is the godfather of public relations?

Edward Louis Bernays (/bɜːrˈneɪz/ bur-NAYZ, German: [bɛʁˈnaɪs]; November 22, 1891 − March 9, 1995) was an American pioneer in the field of public relations and propaganda, and referred to in his obituary as "the father of public relations".

What is the largest PR agency?

Edelman . Established in 1952, Edelman has grown to become the world's largest independent PR agency.

Who is known as the father of propaganda?

Meet Edward Bernays — Father of Modern Propaganda.

Who wrote the first book on public relations?

Public Relations is a sociology book written by American pioneer in the field of public relations and propaganda, Edward Bernays , and first published in 1945.

Who is the founder of public relations?

One of the most important names is the field of PR is Edward Bernays , the Father of Public Relations and author of the influential book Propaganda. Being the nephew of Sigmund Freud, his PR strategies were greatly influenced by his uncle's theories on behavioural psychology.

Who taught the first college course in public relations?

However, the course was titled "Publicity Techniques"; the first course in the United States titled "Public Relations" was taught by Edward L. Bernays at New York University in 1923 (Wilcox, Cameron, and Reber 2015).

Whose first textbook on PR was first taught at the college course at new york university in 1923?

Edward Bernays University of Applied Sciences was named after the man who is considered the father of public relations throughout the world, the nephew of the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud, the man who wrote the first book on public relations in 1923, The Crystallization of Public Opinion, and in the same year, ...

EBook - Public Relations The Profession and The Practice by Lattimore, Dan

Fourth Edition

Public Relations The Profession & the Practice

Lattimore Baskin Heiman Toth

Dan Lattimore Otis Baskin Suzette T. Heiman Elizabeth L. Toth

MD DALIM 1145216 05/14/11 CYAN MAG YELO BLACK

A website www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e is available with valuable resources such as practice quizzes for the student and an Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint® slides for the instructor.

The Profession & the Practice

For the fourth edition, new material has been added on the latest social, interactive media and its use by public relations. New cases and mini-cases look at Jet Blue, GM, Haagen Dazs, AFLAC, and “green jobs.” End-of-chapter cases provide longer, more in-depth material and questions for student involvement and learning. A new appendix assists students in creating video content and breaking broadcast barriers.

Public Relations

Coverage of global markets, new technologies, multiculturalism, and the latest news about public relations in action make this dynamic text the cutting-edge choice for public relations courses. In a personal and jargon-free style, this text presents and explains the fundamental tools of public relations practice, providing a multi-disciplinary understanding of the emerging trends within the field, with spotlights on people and issues of interest to students.

Fourth Edition

Public Relations The Profession and the Practice FOURTH EDITION

D A N L AT T I M O R E OTIS BASKIN S U Z E T T E T. H E I M A N ELIZABETH L. TOTH

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PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE PROFESSION AND THE PRACTICE, FOURTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2007 and 2004. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 RJE /RJE 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 978-0-07-351205-1 MHID 0-07-351205-2 Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Michael Ryan Vice-President & Director of Specialized Publishing: Janice M. Roerig-Blong Publisher: David Patterson Sponsoring Editor: Debra B. Hash Director of Marketing & Sales: Jennifer J. Lewis Senior Project Manager: Joyce Watters Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes Cover Design: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri Cover Images: Marathon: © Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit, Inc.; Woman and Man Reviewing Brochure: © Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit, Inc.; Mission Control: © 2010 Gatorade; Young Girl Using Facebook: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.; Protestors: © Laurie Volkmann. Buyer: Sherry L. Kane Media Project Manager: Sridevi Palani Compositor: MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company Typeface: 10/12 Minion Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Public relations : the profession and the practice / Dan Lattimore . . . [et al.]. — 4th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-351205-1 (pbk. : acid-free paper) 1. Public relations. 2. Public relations—United States. I. Lattimore, Dan. HM1221.P82 2011 659.2 — dc22 2011007646

www.mhhe.com

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Brief Contents

Preface xiii About the Authors

xviii

PA R T O N E 1 2 3 4

The Profession

The Nature of Public Relations 2 The History of Public Relations 24 A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations Law and Ethics 70

PA R T T W O 5 6 7 8

The Publics

The Practice

116

177

Social Media and Traditional Media Relations Employee Communication 210 Community Relations 232 Consumer Relations and Marketing 260 Investor Relations 286

PA R T F O U R 14 15 16

The Process

Research: Understanding Public Opinion 94 Strategic Planning for Public Relations Effectiveness Action and Communication 134 Evaluating Public Relations Effectiveness 156

PA R T T H R E E 9 10 11 12 13

178

305

Public Affairs: Relations with Government 306 Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations 326 Corporate Public Relations 350

Appendix 1: Writing A-1 ■ Appendix 2: Speechmaking A-9 ■ Appendix 3: Video A-15

iii

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Contents

Preface xiii About the Authors

xviii

PA R T O N E 1

The Profession

The Nature of Public Relations 2 PREVIEW

THE CHANGING INSTITUTION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS 16 Rethinking Internal Communication 17 Changing Organizational Structures and Settings 17

WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?

A Working Definition 4 Public Relations Practitioners’ Work

THE SCOPE OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY 19

■ Spotlight 1.1: PRSA Official Statement on Public Relations 5

A PROFILE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS 20

DEVELOPING RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION 5

Education 20 Salaries 20 ■ Spotlight 1.2: Public Relations Student Society of America 21

INFLUENCING GROUPS, POLICIES, AND ISSUES 5 THE PUBLICS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Age and Gender

USING COMMUNICATION SKILLS EFFECTIVELY 7

■ Case Study: The Intern Assignment

DISTINGUISHING PUBLIC RELATIONS FROM RELATED FIELDS 7

KEY TERMS 22

SUMMAR Y

PUBLIC RELATIONS PROFESSIONALS AT WORK

THE MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS 10

Advancing Socially Responsible Behavior 10 Public Relations Leaders and Decision Making 10 PUBLIC RELATIONS CHALLENGES CRISIS COMMUNICATION

NOTES

The History of Public Relations 24 PREVIEW

RHETORICIAN AND PRESS AGENT TRADITION 26

■ Mini-Case 1.1: Crisis Management: Chinese Toys Found to Be Fatal for Kids 13

American Antecedents to Public Relations Public Relations in a Young Nation 27

SOCIAL MEDIA 14

P. T. Barnum and Press Agentry 28 The Downside of Press Agentry 28

PUBLIC RELATIONS AND GLOBAL MARKETS

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Contents JOURNALISTIC AND PUBLICITY TRADITION

■ Spotlight 3.1: Pat Jackson’s Lasting Contribution to Public Relations 53

Early Public Relations Consultants 29 Not-for-Profit Organizations and Social Movements 31 Early Corporate Communications Departments 31 Early Government Public Relations 32

Situational Theory

■ Spotlight 3.2: James E. Grunig

Social Exchange Theory

Diffusion Theory 58 Social Learning Theory

PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLES

Harold Burson 38 Moss Kendrix 39

■ Spotlight 3.3: Theories Used in Public Relations 61

THE GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY

■ Case Study: Wreck on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 1906 45 SUMMARY 47 47

NOTES 47

A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations 50 52

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KEY TERMS

The Internet to Social Media 44 Global Communication Demands 45 Proliferating Communication Channels 45

SUMMARY NOTES

■ Spotlight 2.3: Conceptual Traditions in Public Relations 43

Systems Theory

MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

APPROACHES TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION 64

Professionalization of the Field 40 New Stakeholder Groups 42

THEORIES OF RELATIONSHIPS

■ Case Study: Ben and Jerry’s “Hubby Hubby” Campaign 65

■ Spotlight 2.2: First Lady of Public Relations 40

THEORY DEFINED

Uses and Gratifications Theory 59 Framing Theory 59 Agenda Setting Theory 60

■ Mini-Case 2.1: Carl Byoir and FDR 38

PREVIEW

THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

■ Spotlight 2.1: Public Relations Pioneers 36

■ Mini-Case 3.1: DaimlerChrysler: Road Ready Teens 57

The Creel Committee 32 Edward Bernays 33 RELATIONSHIP-BUILDING AND TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION TRADITION 33

KEY TERMS

THEORIES OF PERSUASION AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE 56

THE PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGN TRADITION 32

Arthur Page 33 The Depression and World War II Post–World War II 35

Law and Ethics PREVIEW

THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT

First Amendment Rights and Limits

■ Mini-Case 4.1: Dealing with Cybersmearers 74 Government Regulatory Agencies 77 General Business Regulations 78 Legal Considerations Surrounding the Internet 80 Litigation Public Relations 80 THE ETHICAL ENVIRONMENT

■ Spotlight 4.1: Emotional Intelligence in Public Relations Practice 82 Ethics as Standards of Social Conduct 82 Individual Ethics 82 Business Ethics 83

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vii

Contents ■ Spotlight 4.3: IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators 89

Establishing Standards for a Developing Profession 85 The PRSA Code 85

■ Case Study: JetBlue Faces Legal and Ethical Dilemmas with Its Exiting Flight Attendant 90

■ Spotlight 4.2: PRSA Code of Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations 86

SUMMARY

The IABC Code 88 The Question of Licensure 88

PA R T T W O 5

KEY TERMS 91 NOTES

The Process

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING

ELEMENTS OF PLANNING 103

105

Social Audits 113 ■ Case Study: University Blood Drive

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115

■ Mini-Case 6.1: The Inevitable Tragedy: NASA’s Emergency Planning 130

109

■ Spotlight 5.1: Research Terms in Lay Language 113

NOTES

■ Spotlight 6.2: Public Relations by Objectives 128 Planning by Objectives 128 Standing Plans 128

The Public Relations Audit 110 Organizational Image Surveys 111 Communication Audits 111 Usability Research 112

115

121

■ Spotlight 6.1: The Rhode Island Department of Health Campaign Plan to Encourage Breast Cancer Screening 127

107

SPECIAL PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH TECHNIQUES 109

KEY TERMS

121

Campaign Plans (Single Use)

■ Mini-Case 5.1: Memphis Image Survey Summary 104

114

119

FUNDAMENTALS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING 120

Preliminary Research Techniques 99 Formal, Scientific Research Techniques

Collecting Formal Research Data

118

Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 2 118

PROVING THE WORTH OF PUBLIC RELATIONS 98

MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION

117

STRATEGIC PLANNING

Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 1 96

SUMMAR Y

Strategic Planning for Public Relations Effectiveness 116 PREVIEW

THE NEED FOR RESEARCH IN PUBLIC RELATIONS 96

Mass Opinion 108 Public Opinion 108 Identifying Publics 108 Environmental Monitoring

Research: Understanding Public Opinion 94 PREVIEW

■ Case Study: Kodak Galleries SUMMAR Y

KEY TERMS 133 NOTES

133

Action and Communication 134 PREVIEW

114

131

132

135

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN ACTION

136

Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 3 136 Influencing Management Decisions 137

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viii

Contents ■ Mini-Case 7.1: The Pepsi Hoax

TRADITIONAL EVALUATION

138

Principles of Effective Writing Media Selection

143

MEASURING THE WORTH OF PUBLIC RELATIONS EFFORTS 161 ■ Mini-Case 8.1: The Importance of Evaluation 162

144

Measurements That Matter 162 Measurement Strategies 163 Sources of Measurement Error 167

■ Spotlight 7.2: Internet Writing Guidelines 145 Social Media and “Buzz” 145 ■ Spotlight 7.3: 33 Guidelines for Effective Web Sites Based upon Usability Research 146 HOW TO BE HEARD

CLOSED-SYSTEM EVALUATION

149

OPEN-SYSTEM EVALUATION

152

EVALUATING WORD-OF-MOUTH/SOCIAL MEDIA 173

153

■ Case Study: River City Symphony

NOTES 153

169

The Short-Term and Continuing Approaches 170 An Open-System Plan in Actual Practice 170

SUMMAR Y 153 KEY TERMS

168

Pretest/Posttest Design 168 Disadvantages of the Closed-System Method 169

Attention (Selective Attention) 150 Understanding (Selective Perception) 150 Retention and Action (Selective Retention and Action) 151 ■ Case Study: University Hospital

159

Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 4 160

THE PRACTITIONER AS A COMMUNICATOR ■ Spotlight 7.1: Tips for Effective Writing

158

THE NEED FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH

Diffusing Information 139 Facilitating the Adoption Process 140 Designing the Public Relations Matrix 142

SUMMAR Y

174

175

KEY TERMS 175

Evaluating Public Relations Effectiveness 156

NOTES

175

PREVIEW 157 EVALUATION FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES 158

PA R T T H R E E 9

The Publics

Social Media and Traditional Media Relations 178 PREVIEW 179 MEDIA RELATIONS

180

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOURNALISTS AND PR PRACTITIONERS 181 ■ Mini-Case 9.1: Fatal Tiger Attack at San Francisco Zoo 182 The Public Relations Practitioner’s View of the Journalist 183 Mutual Dependence 183 Media Catching 183 Building Positive Relationships 184

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177 UNDERSTANDING THE MEDIA TRADITIONAL MEDIA

185

186

Newspapers 186 Newswires 186 Magazines 187 Radio 187 Network, Cable, and Satellite Television 187 Online News Outlets 188 ■ Spotlight 9.1: Effective Media Relations in the Blogosphere 189 SOCIAL MEDIA 190 Social Networking

190

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Contents ■ Spotlight 9.2: Social Media Terms WORKING WITH THE MEDIA

KEY TERMS 230

Preparing to Meet the Media 192 Dealing with the News Media 193 Research and Planning in Media Relations COMMUNICATION TOOLS

SUMMAR Y 229

191

192

NOTES 193

11 Communit y Relations

194

News Releases 194 Packaging and Distributing News Releases 198 ■ Spotlight 9.3: Social Media Success 199 Organizing Press or News Conferences

199

CRISIS COMMUNICATION

PREVIEW

THE COMMUNITY RELATIONS PROCESS

202

SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RELATIONS 240

SUMMARY 207 KEY TERMS 207

When an Organization Moves, Relocates, and Closes 240 Criteria for Community Relations Activities 241 Local Government and Political Action 242 Corporate Social Responsibility and Philanthropy 242

207

10 Employee Communication 210 211

■ Mini-Case 10.1: Best Buy Employees Get the Job Done Their Way 213 THE ROLE OF EMPLOYEE COMMUNICATION 213

■ Case Study: Love Is Respect: National Campaign Offers Teenagers, Young Adults Support Against Abuse on the Community Level 254

214

THE IMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEE COMMUNICATION 216 Special Employee Communication Situations

■ Mini-Case 11.1: Thousands of Deloitte Professionals Worldwide Take Part in IMPACT Day 246 THE EMERGING CHALLENGE OF COMMUNITY ACTIVISM 252

THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 214 Establishing Communication Policy Organizational Change 215

236

Determining Objectives 237 Knowing the Community 237 Guidelines for Effective Community Relations Programs 239 Communicating with Communities 239 Channels of Communication 239

■ Case Study: General Motors Goes Social with a Financial Crisis 206

PREVIEW

233

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY RELATIONS 234

■ Mini-Case 9.2: Katrina Reveals Good, Bad, Ugly of Media Relations 204

NOTES

232

■ Spotlight 11.1: Kodak’s Commitment to Community During Transformation 236

INCORPORATING ONLINE SOCIAL MEDIA TOOLS 201 Wikis, Intranets, and Extranets

230

SUMMAR Y 257 KEY TERMS 216

NOTES

257

THE MEDIA OF EMPLOYEE COMMUNICATION 219 Objectives of Internal Media 220 Starting Internal Media 221 Controlling Internal Media 222 Occasional and Special Media 222 ■ Spotlight 10.1: Must-Read Blogs for Employee Communicators 225 ■ Case Study: Communicating with an Organization of Achievement Addicts 226

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12 Consumer Relations and Marketing 260 PREVIEW

261

CONSUMER RELATIONS BRIDGES THE CORPORATION AND THE CONSUMER The Challenges of Consumer Relations Know Your Consumer 263

262 262

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Contents ■ Spotlight 13.1: Internal Public Relations Lessons Learned from Enron Inc. 289

PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CONSUMER RELATIONS 265 Consumer Information and Education

265

Unfair and Deceptive Practices 266 Handling Consumer Complaints 266 Technology and Complaints 267 Marketing and Complaints 267 The Corporate Liaison 267

MAINTAINING INVESTOR CONFIDENCE

■ Mini-Case 13.1: Aflac “Say on Pay” 291 PROVIDING PUBLIC INFORMATION 268

271

APPLYING PUBLIC RELATIONS TECHNIQUES TO MARKETING 272 Product and Service Design 272 Distribution 273 Communication 273 ■ Mini-Case 12.1: Dreyer’s “A Taste of Recovery” Campaign 274 Integrating Disciplines and Technology

■ Case Study: Häagen-Dazs Loves Honey Bees

NOTES 282

AUDIENCES FOR INVESTOR RELATIONS

296 296

Individual Stockholders 296 Financial Analysts 297 The Financial Media 298 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN INVESTOR RELATIONS 299 Annual Meetings 300 Annual Reports 300

SUMMARY

13 Investor Relations

303

KEY TERMS 303

286

NOTES

304

287

DEFINING EVENTS

PA R T F O U R

288

The Practice

305

14 Public Affairs: Relations with Government 306 PREVIEW 307 PUBLIC AFFAIRS

308

WHAT IS PUBLIC AFFAIRS?

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FINANCIAL RELATIONS PROFESSIONALS

■ Case Study: Computer Widget Company of North America 303

282

PREVIEW

295

The Tender Offer 295 The Proxy Fight 295

280

SUMMAR Y 282 KEY TERMS

CRISIS ISSUES IN INVESTOR RELATIONS

275

■ Spotlight 12.1: Public Relations Tactics to Support Consumer Relations and Marketing Efforts 280

292

SEC Regulations 292 Sarbanes-Oxley Act 293 Stock Exchange Policies 294 The Disclosure Issue 294

Establishing Your Company as a Good Corporate Citizen 270 THE STARTING POINT

290

Characteristics of a Corporate Communications Strategy 290 Specific Objectives for Practitioners 290

TEAMING PUBLIC RELATIONS WITH MARKETING 268 Public Relations and Social Media

GROWING INTEREST IN INVESTOR RELATIONS 289

PUBLIC AFFAIRS FOR NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS 309 ■ Mini-Case 14.1: Even a Corporate Icon Must Have Vigilant Public Affairs 310 PUBLIC AFFAIRS IN BUSINESS

308

PUBLIC AFFAIRS TASKS

310

311

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Contents UNDERSTANDING THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

312

Electoral Activities 312 Legislative Activities 314 Politicking from the Grass Roots 315 Regulatory Activities 316 State and Local Public Affairs 316 Internal Political Communication 317 GOVERNMENTAL PUBLIC AFFAIRS

318

Background of Public Relations in American Government 319 Importance and Scope of Governmental Public Relations 320 Function of Governmental Public Relations 320 Practice of Governmental Public Relations 321 Using the Internet 322 Public Relations and Political Campaigns 322 ■ Case Study: The U.S. Air Force Honors Fallen Heroes 323

■ Mini-Case 15.1: A Nonprofit Evaluates the Challenges of Creating a Recognized National Identity 340 SUCCESS FACTORS FOR NONPROFIT PUBLIC RELATIONS 340 Focus on Mission 340 Strong Internal Public Relations 341 ■ Spotlight 15.1: Leveraging Resources to Gain National Visibility 342 External Public Relations That Unify 342 Active Participation of Board Members 342 EVALUATING NONPROFIT PUBLIC RELATIONS 343 ■ Case Study: NRANews.com: A Case Study in “Branded News” 343 SUMMAR Y 346 KEY TERMS 347 NOTES

347

SUMMAR Y 324 KEY TERMS NOTES

324

16 Corporate Public Relations 350

325

PREVIEW

15 Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations 326 PREVIEW

327

FOR-PROFIT VERSUS NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS 328 THE NONPROFIT ENVIRONMENT Social Ventures

329

THE PRACTICE OF NONPROFIT PUBLIC RELATIONS 331 Health and Human Services 331 Membership Associations 332 Educational Institutions 333 Religious Public Relations 336 Other Nonprofit Sectors 336

Gaining Recognition in a Crowded Environment 337 Competing for Resources 338 Weathering Crises and Scandals 338 Managing Multiple Publics 339 Balancing Multiple Bottom Lines 339

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THE STRUCTURE OF CORPORATE PUBLIC RELATIONS 352 A Corporation’s Publics 354 The Role of the CEO in Corporate Public Relations 354 Public Relations Specialties 356 Public Relations Activities 357 The Role of the Corporate Communicator and Its Agencies 358 The Role of Public Relations in Multinational Corporations 359 ■ Spotlight 16.1: 10 Best Practices for Global Communications 360 Corporate Public Relations Budgets 360

PUBLIC RELATIONS CHALLENGES FACED BY NONPROFITS 337

Building a Brand and an Identity

351

OVERVIEW OF CORPORATE PUBLIC RELATIONS 352

339

Tactics Used by Corporate Public Relations 361 CORPORATE CREDIBILITY AND REPUTATION 362 ■ Mini-Case 16.1: Goldman Sachs Faces an Uphill Battle in Trying to Restore Its Reputation 363 The Challenge of Earning a Good Reputation 364

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xii

Contents Restoring Credibility 364 Consumer Relations 365 Promoting Public Understanding 365 Technology and Corporate Public Relations Corporate Social Responsibility 367

■ Case Study: Announcement of Expansion, New Green Jobs Positions Corporation as Regional Leader 368 SUMMAR Y 370 KEY TERMS 370 NOTES 371

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Appendix 1: Writing 366

A-1

Appendix 2: Speechmaking, by Dan Reines A-9 Appendix 3: Video

A-15

Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1

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Preface

ublic relations is emerging as a major force in a growing global information society in the 21st century. Public relations as a discipline is still relatively young, beginning in the early 20th century but not really exploding until after World War II. Early efforts, for the most part, were publicity- and media-related events. However, as it has begun to mature, it has emerged with a management-oriented, relationship-building focus among its stakeholders with less emphasis on media tools and more on behavioral change. Also, as new social, interactive media tools are developing, there is more emphasis on using these tools to supplement the traditional media relations efforts. The process of public relations continues to be grounded in the research, planning, action, and evaluation of the past, but many techniques of actually carrying out that process are being changed by technology. Surveys once done by interviewers door-to-door, or even by telephone, are more often done through the Internet today. The publics of public relations are still the major stakeholders for an organization whether they are employees, media, community members, consumers, or investors. These critical changes in society and technology lend importance to the increasing emphasis in the management function of public relations. The practitioner may be a counselor in a public relations ﬁrm advising business and organizations on the important public relations positions and operations, or a vice president of a corporation sitting at the executive roundtable advising his or her peers of the consequences of some action. Practitioners are no longer mere technicians who shape and transmit messages from their organizations. They are professionals who manage the public relations function and build the relationships an organization has with its various constituencies. Public relations practitioners must possess the communication expertise and social sensitivity necessary to enable organizations to adapt to the changing environment. Public relations professionals today must bring to their broadened role not only the traditional communication skills, but also the abilities to research and understand problems, to strategically plan public relations programs, to create effective messages using both the new social media as well as the traditional media, and to evaluate the effectiveness of these programs. The goal of this book is to provide you with an understanding of the principles underlying the practice of public relations while giving you a look at both the new communication opportunities and the trusted older tools for public relations practice. This we have tried to do within the historical context, the theoretical framework, and the legal and ethical foundation for the profession of public relations. A multidisciplinary approach has characterized the text from its inception and is continued in this edition. We believe that by drawing on the experience of journalism, business, psychology,

APPROACH OF THE TEXT xiii

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xiv

Preface

and communication professionals, we can present a comprehensive and inclusive overview of public relations. The education, research, and teaching experience of the authors in each of these disciplines addresses the needs of students who will be practicing in diverse environments. We have tried to maintain an easy-to-read, personal style throughout the text. To that end, we have kept the jargon to a minimum and have provided definitions for all terms that are particular to the profession. In addition, we have attempted to give public relations students and practitioners the tools and knowledge they need in ways that reflect the reality of public relations. For example, Mini-cases provide insight into real-time activities conducted by organizations. Public relations Spotlights provide helpful information on topics such as James Grunig’s public relations theories, and lessons learned from crisis such as Enron and BP. This edition retains the four-part organization of earlier editions: the profession, the process, the publics, and the practice. Part 1 describes the current public relations situation, its historical roots, theories, and ethical and legal concerns. Part 2 examines the core issues of the process that underlie public relations, whereas part 3 focuses on the publics that are the object of these efforts. Finally, part 4 summarizes the practice of public relations and looks at the emerging trends of the profession. We believe that this structure truly reflects the growth and development of public relations as an emerging profession.

ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXT

PEDAGOGY

■

■ ■ ■

■ ■

■

■ ■

Chapters have been updated, while the classic material has been retained. The content truly reﬂects the direction of public relations in the 21st century. Each chapter opens with a preview that engages the student in a real-life public relations situation. Three appendixes provide practical guidelines for writing, speaking and video production. Mini-cases in each chapter allow students to “see” public relations in action. Spotlights in each chapter add material to enhance students’ understanding of the chapter’s concepts. Numerous ﬁgures and tables explain and clarify concepts under discussion. An integrating case study runs through each of the four chapters of part two to help pull together the process of public relations. A case study at the end of each chapter provides opportunities for student discussion and interaction with the concepts in the chapter. Each chapter includes end-of-chapter references. Highlighted glossary terms in the text, and a complete end-of-book glossary, focus on terms that are particular to the profession.

WHAT’S FEATURED IN EACH CHAPTER

Chapter One: The Nature of Public Relations

This chapter introduces the reader to the changing nature of public relations, including the new social media. Integrated into this chapter is a section on PR challenges, including strategies for crisis communication, keeping up with new social media opportunities for engaging stakeholders, the evolving global public relations practice, and the changing organizational structure needed to meet those challenges.

Chapter Two: The History of Public Relations This chapter looks at the historical development of public relations through four overlapping traditions. It highlights key public relations professionals throughout history, and a spotlight provides short biographical sketches of these professionals. Included is

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Preface

a new spotlight on Betsy Ann Plank, an advocate for students through their organization, PRSSA.

Chapter Three: A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations Persuasion and social inﬂuence theories are illustrated through a mini-case on DaimlerChrysler’s StreetWise computer game. The chapter also links the new mixed motive model of public relations with strategies of conﬂict resolution. A spotlight summarizes nine key research theories in four categories. A new spotlight on James Grunig features one of the most renowned scholars and theorists in public relations.

Chapter Four: Law and Ethics The developing legal consideration of the Internet is considered in depth, and the chapter has a new focus on ﬁnancial law looking at the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. The USA Patriot Act is also introduced, and a new end-of-chapter case study features JetBlue.

Chapter Five: Research: Understanding Public Opinion The research chapter begins the process section with the initial part of the case study that runs throughout the four chapters in this section. The research terms are explained in lay language with a spotlight. Usability research for Web-based material is included, along with an examination of Internet, library, and database resources.

Chapter Six: Strategic Planning for Public Relations Effectiveness This chapter features a sample plan and budget, along with the second part of the case study that runs throughout this section. A case study highlights Kodak Galleries.

Chapter Seven: Action and Communication The chapter highlights the importance of Internet writing and includes a spotlight on guidelines for effective Web sites.

Chapter Eight: Evaluating Public Relations Effectiveness Evaluation software, an examination of Ketchum’s extranet efforts, and additional measurement strategies are included in this chapter. An emphasis on measurements that matter is included.

Chapter Nine: Social Media and Traditional Media Relations The new title of the chapter stresses the importance of social media in today’s media relations mix. Social media are highlighted in this chapter with a section explaining the personal, interactive media and how they are changing media relations. Spotlights are on social media terms, social networking, and the blogosphere. There is a new endof-chapter case on GM using social media to deal with its ﬁnancial crisis.

Chapter Ten: Employee Communication This chapter considers the new labor force of the 21st century and its inﬂuence on employee communication. It presents the use of blogs as an employee communication tool. The chapter has a case study on maintaining employee relationships during a tragedy.

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Chapter Eleven: Community Relations This chapter provides emphasis on corporate social philanthropy as well as community activism. A spotlight features Kodak’s commitment to community relations and a new end-of-chapter case highlights the “Love Is Respect” campaign.

Chapter Twelve: Consumer Relations and Marketing New to this chapter is an expanded discussion of corporate social responsibility. Also, there is a section on viral marketing and a new case study on Häagen-Dazs cause marketing.

Chapter Thirteen: Investor Relations An Aﬂac mini-case on executive pay along with a discussion of inﬂuences on investor relations such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act highlight this chapter.

Chapter Fourteen: Public Affairs: Relations with Government A new end case study on “fallen heroes” and a new mini-case on Johnson & Johnson before Congress highlight additions to this chapter.

Chapter Fifteen: Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations This chapter provides a global perspective on nonproﬁt work, going far beyond small, well-intentioned community-based programs, and includes a discussion of the challenges faced by nonproﬁts.

Chapter Sixteen: Corporate Public Relations This chapter discusses the crucial role that public relations plays in creating and developing a corporation’s image and reputation with its key publics, particularly life after corporate scandals. A section on “12 steps on restoring a company’s reputation” is included, along with a section on corporate PR reporting. A new end-of-chapter case study on “green jobs” is included.

Appendix 1, Appendix 2, and Appendix 3 Three appendixes provide additional help for students with basic public relations skills: writing, speaking and video. The Online Learning Center, available for students and instructors alike, can be found at www.mhhe .com/lattimore4e. This useful resource contains a number of assets that students and instructors will want to use throughout the duration of the course. For the student, these assets include:

SUPPLEMENTS FOR STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS

■

Self-Quizzes: Students can assess their comprehension of the chapter concepts by taking practice tests that provide feedback for each answer. For the instructor, these assets include:

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An Instructor’s Manual containing Chapter Summaries, Objectives, In-Class Exercises and Individual Learning Activities, and Essay Questions. A comprehensive test item bank with numerous multiple-choice questions for use with each chapter of the textbook.

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Preface

The following academics reviewed our manuscript and helped us to make it as useful as possible for students and professors:

Coy Callison Texas Tech University Todd Chambers Texas Tech University Scott Dickmeyer University of Wisconsin Shearlean Duke Western Washington University Dina Gavrilos Walter Cronkite School, Arizona State University

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Judith A. Linville University of Missouri–St. Louis Kenneth Plowman Brigham Young University Christine Russell East Carolina University Andi Stein Cal State Fullerton Tim Howard Sacramento State

We deeply appreciate those who distilled from their professional or teaching experiences the cases and spotlights that appear in each chapter. We especially thank Dr. Laurie Volkmann, Dominican University, for the revision of chapter 9 with a new emphasis on social media. Our appreciation also goes to our universities for their support, services, and resources. Finally, we give our sincere thanks to the professionals at McGraw-Hill Publishing who worked so hard and long assisting us in putting the project together. Dan Lattimore, University of Memphis Otis Baskin, Pepperdine University Suzette T. Heiman, University of Missouri–Columbia Elizabeth L. Toth, University of Maryland

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About the Authors

Dan Lattimore is vice provost for extended programs, dean of University College, and professor of journalism at the University of Memphis. He is also an accredited public relations practitioner, has served as chair of the PRSA Educators Academy, chair of the PRSA Educational Affairs Committee, and president of the Memphis Chapter of PRSA. He also served for 12 years on the Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication including six years as vice president. He worked in communication for 10 years on U.S. State Department–funded foreign aid projects, producing more than 100 videos, numerous technical reports, booklets, and informational materials. He is the author of ﬁve books and numerous sch olarly publications.

Otis Baskin is professor of management at the George L. Graziadio School of Business and Management at Pepperdine University where he served as dean from 1995 to 2001. Dr. Baskin has served as an adviser to management for public and private organizations around the world. He is a frequent speaker to industry and executive groups including the Conference Board, the Family Business Network (Europe), and the International Security Management Network. Dr. Baskin’s scholarly achievements include six books, in addition to numerous articles and published papers.

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Suzette T. Heiman is director of planning and communication and an associate professor at the Missouri School of Journalism at the University of Missouri–Columbia. Her professional background includes experience in public relations and advertising for nonproﬁts, and she serves as a consultant to industry. She is an accredited member of PRSA.

Elizabeth L. Toth, PhD, is a full professor and the chair of the Department of Communication of the University of Maryland–College Park. Toth has co-authored Women and Public Relations: How Gender Inﬂuences Practice; The Velvet Ghetto: The Increasing Numbers of Women in Public Relations; Beyond the Velvet Ghetto; and the PRSA Glass Ceiling Studies. She co-edited The Gender Challenge to Media: Diverse Voices from the Field. Toth edited the Journal of Public Relations Research for six years. Currently, she co-edits Journalism Studies, an international journal. Her co-edited book, Rhetorical and Critical Approaches to Public Relations, won the NCA PRIDE Award. She has published over 75 articles, book chapters, and papers. Toth is the recipient of the PRSA Outstanding Educator Award; the Institute for Public Relations Pathﬁnder Award; and the Jackson, Jackson & Wagner Behavior Science Prize for research. She was inducted into the PRSA College of Fellows in 2010. Her professional public relations experience was in government relations.

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P A R T

O N E

The Profession P

art 1 covers the fundamentals of public relations

Finally, chapter 4 looks at the legal, ethical, and profes-

practice. Chapter 1 gives a working definition of pub-

sional responsibilities of public relations practitioners

lic relations, reviewing and refining the definitions of

in our society.

previous studies. Chapter 2 examines the historical roots of public relations, providing a useful perspective on the discipline as it has emerged. Chapter 3 deals with communications and systems theory as a background for public relations practice.

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C H A P T E R

The Nature of Public Relations OUTLINE PREVIEW WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS? A Working Definition Public Relations Practitioners’ Work DEVELOPING RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION INFLUENCING GROUPS, POLICIES, AND ISSUES THE PUBLICS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS USING COMMUNICATION SKILLS EFFECTIVELY DISTINGUISHING PUBLIC RELATIONS FROM RELATED FIELDS PUBLIC RELATIONS PROFESSIONALS AT WORK THE MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS Advancing Socially Responsible Behavior Public Relations Leaders and Decision Making PUBLIC RELATIONS CHALLENGES CRISIS COMMUNICATION SOCIAL MEDIA PUBLIC RELATIONS AND GLOBAL MARKETS THE CHANGING INSTITUTION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS Rethinking Internal Communication Changing Organizational Structures and Settings THE SCOPE OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY A PROFILE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS Education Salaries Age and Gender CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES 2

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PREVIEW

arissa has just been promoted to account executive at the up-and-coming public relations and strategic communications agency where she works. Her client is the

software giant Microsoft. Settling into her office, Marissa checks her e-mails and daily media tracking report to see what the media have reported about her Microsoft product over the past 24 hours. She also checks to see what, if anything, has been said or written about her clients’ competitors. Then she summarizes the highlights and e-mails them to her clients and to the other members of her Microsoft product team. Next is her project with Wired, a computer publication. Marissa has been working with a Wired reporter to ensure that Microsoft’s new-product launch announcement will be the featured article in an upcoming issue, with front-cover placement. Today she begins organizing artwork to accompany the announcement, then takes the art to an account team meeting where team members will synchronize the Wired feature with follow-up stories in other trade publications, consumer electronics magazines, and the financial press. Over lunch with a group of volunteers organizing a summer reading program for kids, Marissa suggests some local business partnerships as ways to sponsor the program and provide transportation to and from the library for the children. The afternoon’s agenda includes locating a Microsoft executive to field questions from a reporter writing about Internet regulation and starting a new line of research for a Microsoft brand manager looking for help with a marketing program. In just a few hours Marissa has demonstrated the communication, leadership, and management skills on which successful public relations practitioners rely.

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Part I • The Profession

We examine other aspects of a job like Marissa’s throughout this chapter and the entire book, but first let’s define public relations and its key dimensions. Attempts to define public relations as a professional field and academic discipline are many and varied. The very nature of the profession and its constant adaptation to the needs of society make it at best a moving target for definition. Public relations is practiced in organizations that range from giant, multinational telecommunications companies to small human service agencies and fledgling social movement organizations. A public relations manager for a private university may devote most of her or his efforts to fund-raising and student recruitment. In contrast, the public relations staff of a large corporation may be responsible for the firm’s relationships with customers, suppliers, investors, employees, and even foreign governments.

WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?

A Working Definition Public relations practitioners help others establish and maintain effective relationships with third parties. They usually work in businesses like public relations firms or agencies such as Marissa’s, or as independent consultants, or on the communication staffs of corporations, not-for-profit organizations, or government agencies. For the purposes of this book—and to establish a broad, realistic, and accurate description of the public relations function—we offer the following working definition: Public relations is a leadership and management function that helps achieve organizational objectives, define philosophy, and facilitate organizational change. Public relations practitioners communicate with all relevant internal and external publics to develop positive relationships and to create consistency between organizational goals and societal expectations. Public relations practitioners develop, execute, and evaluate organizational programs that promote the exchange of influence and understanding among an organization’s constituent parts and publics.

We review the key dimensions of the deﬁnition on the following pages. Also be sure to look at spotlight 1.1, the ofﬁcial statement on public relations outlined by the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA). PRSA is the oldest and largest professional association serving public relations practitioners.

Public Relations Practitioners’ Work Public relations continues to be one of the most dynamic disciplines in organizational life throughout the world. One reason is that public relations practitioners bring such a diversity of skills and programmatic capabilities to their jobs. You can appreciate the broad nature of the discipline when you realize it can include any of the following: Research Counseling/advising Government affairs Investor relations Development or fund-raising Multicultural affairs Issues management

Media relations Public affairs Community relations Employee relations Publicity Marketing communication Promotion

We look at these and other aspects of public relations throughout the remainder of the book.

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PRSA Official Statement on Public Relations Public relations helps our complex, pluralistic society to reach decisions and function more effectively by contributing to mutual understanding among groups and institutions. It serves to bring the public and public policies into harmony. Public relations serves a wide variety of institutions in society, such as businesses, trade unions, government agencies, voluntary associations, foundations, hospitals, and educational and religious institutions. To achieve their goals, these institutions must develop effective relationships with many different audiences or publics, such as employees, members, customers, local communities, shareholders, and other institutions, and with society at large. The leadership of institutions needs to understand the attitudes and values of their publics in order to achieve institutional goals. The goals themselves are shaped by the external environment. The public relations practitioner acts as a counselor to management and as a mediator, helping to translate private aims into reasonable, publicly acceptable policy and action. As a

Spotlight 1.1 management function, public relations encompasses the following: 1. Anticipating, analyzing, and interpreting public opinion, attitudes, and issues that might impact, for good or ill, the operations and plans of the organization. 2. Counseling management at all levels in the organization with regard to policy decisions, courses of action, and communication, taking into account their public ramifications and the organization’s social or citizenship responsibilities. 3. Researching, conducting, and evaluating, on a continuing basis, programs of action and communication to achieve informed public understanding necessary to the success of an organization’s aims. These may include marketing; financial; fund-raising; employee, community, or government relations; and other programs. 4. Planning and implementing the organization’s efforts to influence or change public policy. 5. Setting objectives, planning, budgeting, recruiting and training staff,

developing facilities—in short, managing the resources needed to perform all of the above. 6. Examples of the knowledge that may be required in the professional practice of public relations include communication arts, psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and the principles of management and ethics. Technical knowledge and skills are required for opinion research, public issue analysis, media relations, direct mail, institutional advertising, publications, film/video productions, special events, speeches, and presentations. In helping to define and implement policy, the public relations practitioner utilizes a variety of professional communications skills and plays an integrative role both within the organization and between the organization and the external environment. Source: “Public Relations: An Overview” (New York: PRSA Foundation, 1991), pp. 4–5. Statement formally adopted by PRSA Assembly, November 6, 1982.

Public relations work is all about developing effective DEVELOPING RELATIONSHIPS relationships between organizations and groups that are important to them, including the media, customers, BASED ON TWO-WAY employees, investors, community leaders and memCOMMUNICATION bers, activist groups, and government agencies. These relationships should benefit both parties. Creating that kind of lasting win-win situation requires a great deal of give-and-take based on a mutual understanding of each other’s interests. Effective twoway communication also implies doing well by doing good MTV developed a successful climate change campaign in 2007 that was both a public relations and a social marketing program. Social marketing is a special form of public relations that tries to change public attitudes and behaviors on behalf of a social cause whose work benefits society as a whole, rather than on behalf of the sponsoring organization. Much of the communicating that public relations practitioners INFLUENCING GROUPS, do is both persuasive and purposive. That’s why our definition POLICIES, AND ISSUES talks about promoting the exchange of influence among an organization’s constituent parts and publics. From the earliest times public relations has been seen as the planned effort to influence public opinion, generally through persuasive communication. Marketing communication campaigns, 5

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Part I • The Profession

for example, utilize product publicity to introduce products. Social marketing programs are persuasion efforts designed to inform people and to change their behaviors regarding some public good. An example is the HIV Alliance campaign promoting safer sex through neighborhood needle exchange programs. The public relations practitioner writes the message and selects the communication channel, while the marketing specialists make sure that the messages and condoms are distributed. All definitions and discussions of public relations refer to publics and public opinion. How do people who study and practice public relations make use of these terms? To begin, groups that are almost always important to organizations are called publics, and we generally define them in terms of their organizational relationships to us, including the media, employees, governmental officials, community leaders, and financial analysts, for example. In other instances, we define publics as categories of people who become important to our organization because it has purposely or even inadvertently galvanized them. Perhaps they are community members who resent our organization building a new office addition immediately adjacent to a wetlands area. They become a public once they recognize an issue, understand its relevance to them, and then talk about it or even organize to do something about it. Alert public relations practitioners communicate with these groups very early in the process, perhaps even before they become organized activists or a social movement organization. Chances are, though, that these activists understand the processes by which people begin to make up their minds on an issue once it gets publicized in local newspapers, on radio, and on television newscasts. As the general citizenry learns about an issue, individuals begin to express opinions, talk with others about the issue, and reconcile their opinions with long-standing attitudes, values, and group affiliations. It’s not surprising, therefore, that public relations practitioners monitor public opinion formation and change around many issues; it’s in their best interests. Moreover, the study of public relations has always included the investigation of public opinion, attitude change processes, and social psychology. If public relations practitioners are to build and maintain an organization’s reputation, they’ll need to understand that public opinion formation is a dynamic process in which each of the major interests competes to frame the issue a particular way in the media. In addition, public relations practitioners influence public opinion by helping organizations attract and mobilize supporters.

THE PUBLICS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

This billboard encourages community relations involvement by employees mentoring young people and inspiring them to reach their dreams.

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations

In many respects the heart of public relations work—at least for entry-level positions—is the ability to write, design, and produce materials for all media; public relations practitioners must also possess public speaking, group leadership, and event planning skills. Thus, a big share of day-to-day public relations work is identifying key messages and choosing the best combination of communication channels for directing those messages to target audiences.

USING COMMUNICATION SKILLS EFFECTIVELY

Because the words public relations are very genDISTINGUISHING PUBLIC eral, it’s not surprising that different organizaRELATIONS FROM RELATED tions label the function very differently; for example, the words communication and corporate communication are now more commonly used to label the public relations function in many corporate and nonproﬁt settings. Government agencies often use the terms public information or public affairs to delineate the public relations and communication functions, even though public affairs generally refers to relationships between organizations and governments. Other terms are corporate relations and marketing communication. The labeling issue is further complicated by the fact that public relations practitioners are sometimes assigned to various departments throughout an organization rather than being housed together in a common public relations or communication department. The terms public relations and advertising are often confused as well. Advertising refers to paid space and time in the media, whereas public relations describes publicity or stories that run without charge in the news columns of the media. Paid ads and commercials run almost exclusively in major mass media, including television, newspapers, radio, magazines, and the Internet. Marketing is a sales and distribution function whose principal publics are customers, retailers, and distributors. In contrast, public relations deals with many publics, whose interests sometimes collide with customer interests. In addition to customers, important public relations publics include the media, employees, community leaders, government regulators, investment analysts, activist groups, and more. Finally, journalism is distinct from public relations in two ways. Journalists do not represent the organizations about which they write, but public relations practitioners do, and this may inﬂuence their objectivity and the way they frame ideas and present facts. Journalists are trained to write for news media. Public relations practitioners must master the basic writing, graphic design, and journalistic conventions of all mass media along with more specialized media whose content they control, such as direct mail, pamphlets, posters, newsletters, trade publications, and their organization’s Web site.

FIELDS

Public relations work is organized either through departments PUBLIC RELATIONS or agencies. Public relations departments in business, nonprofits, and government account for about three-fourths of all those PROFESSIONALS AT employed in public relations. The other one-fourth of public relations professionals work in agencies or as independent consultants. Public relations departments range in size from more than 400 members in large corporations to one or two individuals in small organizations. The public relations function in large corporations is frequently led by a vice president who helps develop overall

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WORK

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Part I • The Profession

policy as a member of top management. Large organizations also typically include various other public relations managers at both corporate and division levels, and they may employ a number of public relations specialists such as writers, researchers, and representatives to the media. In a small organization, however, one individual may handle all these responsibilities. Public relations counseling ﬁrms may contain specialists in a particular practice area, such as health care or ﬁnancial services, as well as functional specialists for managing corporate culture change or coordinating content on the internal intranet. This great diversity in the duties of public relations practitioners is clear in the list of public relations functions published in PRSA’s booklet Careers in Public Relations: 1.

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Programming. Programming means analyzing problems and opportunities; defining goals and the publics (or groups of people whose support or understanding is needed); and recommending and planning activities. It may include budgeting and assignment of responsibilities to the appropriate people, including non–public relations personnel. For example, an organization’s president or executive director is often a key figure in public relations activities. Relationships. Successful public relations people develop skill in gathering information from management, from colleagues in their organizations, and from external sources. They do this to strengthen their organization’s ties to external groups, including the media, community leaders, government policymakers and regulators, investors, financial analysts, educational institutions, activist groups, and so on. They also build relationships with internal employee audiences and departments with which they maintain daily contact, such as marketing, human resources, and the legal department. Writing and Editing. Because the public relations worker is often trying to reach large groups of people, the printed word is an important tool for creating reports, news releases, booklets, speeches, film scripts, trade magazine articles, product information and technical material, employee publications, newsletters, shareholder reports, and other management communications directed to both organizational personnel and external groups. A sound, clear style of writing that communicates effectively is a must for public relations work. Information. An important public relations task is sharing information with appropriate newspaper, broadcast, and general and trade publication editors to enlist their interest in publishing an organization’s news and features. This requires knowing how newspapers and other media operate, their areas of specialization, and the interests of individual editors. (Competition is keen for the attention of editors and broadcasters, who have a limited amount of space and time at their disposal.) An increasingly important aspect of sharing information is through social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. Production. Various publications, special reports, films, and multimedia programs are important ways of communicating. The public relations practitioner need not be an expert in art, layout, typography, and photography, but he or she should have background knowledge of the techniques in order to intelligently plan and supervise their use. Special Events. News conferences, convention exhibits and special showings, new facility and anniversary celebrations, contests and award programs, and tours and special meetings are only a few of the special events used to gain attention

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations

and acceptance. They require careful planning and coordination, attention to detail, and the preparation of special booklets, publicity, and reports. Speaking. Public relations work often requires face-to-face communication—finding appropriate platforms, delivering speeches, and preparing speeches for others. Those with public speaking skills will enjoy an advantage. Research and Evaluation. All public relations work is underpinned by research— research on issues, organizations, publics, competition, opportunities, threats, and so on. Public relations practitioners spend considerable time incorporating their research findings into position statements, public relations plans, communication campaigns, media briefing materials, and so on. They gather research through interviews, informal conversation, and review of library materials, databases, and Web sites. They may also conduct surveys or hire firms specializing in designing and conducting opinion research. Research findings influence a public relations program’s objectives and strategies, which in turn form the basis for evaluating its planning, implementation, and effectiveness. More and more managers expect research and evaluation from their public relations advisers or staffs.

An employment psychological testing firm, RembrandtAdvantage, found in its research comparing mid- and senior-level public relations professionals at top public relations firms that high-performing public relations practitioners typically share three common traits: urgency, analytical problem solving, and flexibility. In its Web booklet Careers in Public Relations the Council of Public Relations Firms put together a comparison for the three traits to give aspiring public relations practitioners a test to indicate the likelihood that they would have the ability to become top public relations executives.1 See table 1.1 for the comparison. TABLE 1.1

Comparison with PR Professionals

Compare yourself with successful public relations professionals.

Are you “urgent”? Do you move through work faster than most people? Do you become restless when there is a lull in activity? Do you consider yourself more intense than most people? Are you an “analytical problem solver”? Do complex games and puzzles hold your interest? Do you find that solutions to various problems come to you more easily than they do to other people? Do you instinctively want to address the root cause behind various issues/problems? Are you “flexible” in your approach to work and interactions? When people’s views differ from yours, do you thoughtfully consider their perspective? Do you find that you can have many interruptions and still complete the goals that you set for the day? Do shifts to your plans add to the excitement of your day? If you answered yes to most or all the statements above, you may have what it takes to become a PR professional. Source: Careers in Public Relations: A Guide to Opportunities in a Dynamic Industry, Council of Public Relations Firms, retrieved from www.prfirms.org on Oct. 31, 2010.

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Part I • The Profession

Public relations calls upon both leadership and management functions, and we distinguish between the two in this section. We also address the roles that public relations practitioners and leaders play in advancing socially responsible behavior. And ﬁnally, we consider how public relations practitioners help make decisions in their organizations. Business scholars often distinguish leadership from management by saying that leadership means doing the right things and making the right choices, whereas management means doing things right. As managers, public relations practitioners design and organize communication programs and campaigns. They’re the communication experts for their organizations. Like leaders, communication managers are steeped in planning, but this is generally intermediate-range planning, such as developing the communication for a multiyear marketing plan, determining the key messages for an organization’s “cultural change” training program, or developing the content guidelines for the company’s Web pages and its various intranet and extranet uses. Traditionally, public relations professionals have been viewed more as communication managers than as organizational leaders. Leaders are the individuals charged with building and maintaining an organization’s long-term reputation, helping to meet proﬁt goals, and advising organizations on how to act responsibly in the public interest. They reconcile strategic plans at the highest organizational levels with the interests and concerns of groups whose support is needed, whether those groups are inside the organization, in the community, or even elsewhere in the world. Let’s examine several dimensions of public relations leadership.

THE MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Advancing Socially Responsible Behavior Public relations leaders help keep organizations profitable and long-lasting through socially responsible behavior that serves the public interest as well as their own. Events like the British Petroleum disaster, the Enron debacle, the September 11 terrorist attacks, and regional conflicts throughout the world underscore how critical it is for businesses, governments, and nonprofit organizations to be viewed as credible and responsible in all places at all times. And yet the technology boom of the past two decades, together with overpaid executives at home and underpaid factory workers abroad, show that the public reputations of many organizations are in serious jeopardy. Against this backdrop, thoughtful observers today argue that institutions should assume more responsibility for the consequences of their actions. Insightful public relations practitioners recognize that socially responsive and responsible behavior helps prevent labor unrest and strikes, customer boycotts, environmental lawsuits, and random attacks by disaffected individuals and activist groups. Veteran public relations practitioner and academic Rex Harlow believed that the public relations practitioner defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve in the public interest. Former Hill & Knowlton CEO Robert Dilenschneider takes an even stronger stand, arguing that socially responsive behavior from 2000 to 2020 will determine the extent to which globalization and the world economy will survive.

Public Relations Leaders and Decision Making What gives public relations leaders and practitioners the responsibility or the right to determine and inﬂuence socially responsive organizational behavior in the public interest? In truth, public relations leaders do not make all the decisions that lead to change within organizations, but because they constantly monitor and interact with

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations

Public relations practitioners discuss campaign tactics.

all the publics in the organization’s environment, they often possess information that suggests a need for change or indicates the direction change should take. Public relations practitioners can discover a problem when it is still manageable, thus avoiding unnecessary crises. Indeed, the late Scott Cutlip, renowned public relations educator, believed that the public relations practitioner’s most important responsibility was to interpret the public opinion climate to management. Because they understand the interests of different publics, public relations leaders can help organizations set policy and make strategic plans, establish philosophies, achieve objectives, adapt to changing environments, and successfully compete in today’s markets. Public relations can make important contributions to forming an organization’s ideas about itself—what it should do and what society wants and expects from it. Charles Steinberg described this aspect of public relations as the “structuring of company philosophy and carrying out that philosophy in practice so that what the institution says is not at variance with what it does.”2 In essence, then, public relations leaders spend considerable time gauging the implications that social, political, and economic issues at home and abroad have on maintaining the organization’s long-term reputation. One reason we distinguish public relations leadership from the management of an organization’s communication functions is that the public’s perceptions of business and organizational life are too far-reaching for public relations to address them alone. Indeed, public relations is increasingly the responsibility of executives as well as the province of public relations staffers. We see the need to reinvent the “good” in business and organizational life, as government agencies at all levels retrench in the face of new ﬁscal limitations. Hospitals struggle with regulations, rising costs, new technologies, and changing customer demands. Arts organizations seek new sources of funds as Congress plans to reduce or withdraw government support. Businesses deal with global competition, uncertain

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Part I • The Profession

economic conditions, and a skeptical public. Thus successful leaders in all organizations incorporate public relations savvy and perspectives into their work. Chief executive ofﬁcers of major corporations are well aware that public relations contributes to decision making. Sir Gordon White, who as chairman of Hanson Industries made a career of buying companies and eliminating their corporate staffs, had a staff of only 12, but it included a public relations ofﬁcer. Perhaps the most important task of public relations practitioners is to ensure that public relations considerations are in the mainstream of managerial decision making.

PUBLIC RELATIONS CHALLENGES 3. 4.

Public relations in the 21st century faces continual challenges, including 1. 2.

The increasing need for effective strategies for crisis communication. The increasing avenues of interaction with stakeholders through the new social media. The evolving global public relations community and practice. The changing organizational structure needed to meet these challenges.

Crisis communication involves using all the public relations tools available to preserve and strengthen an organization’s long-term reputation whenever it’s threatened. Organizations deal with problems every day. Late shipments, unhappy customers, unfilled job vacancies, rising prices, and disrupted services are some of the challenges of being in business—but they don’t necessarily constitute a crisis. Crises are different than everyday problems in that they attract public scrutiny through news coverage. See mini-case 1.1. This can disrupt the organization’s normal operations and have political, legal, financial, and governmental impacts on its business.3 The Nashville, Tennessee–based Institute for Crisis Management identifies four basic causes of a business crisis:

CRISIS COMMUNICATION

1. 2. 3. 4.

Acts of God. Storms, earthquakes, volcanic action, ﬂoods, and the like fall into this category. Mechanical problems. Examples include a ruptured pipe or a falling skywalk. Human errors. An employee opens the wrong valve and causes an oil spill, or miscommunication about how to perform a task results in serious injuries. Management decisions/indecisions. Senior-level executives sometimes don’t take the problem seriously enough, or they think that no one will ﬁnd out.4

Crises can be anticipated or even prevented when organizations build and maintain ongoing relationships with key stakeholders, including employees, customers, government, and general and trade media. Regular, two-way communication with these groups is the glue that translates into credibility and positive expectations should an unpredictable crisis hit. Thus, the more consistently an organization does what it tells its stakeholders it will do, the better its reputation. For example, the Coca-Cola company had to weigh the value of relationship building with the educational community against the cost of pursuing a marketing strategy involving exclusive arrangements in schools to ensure only its products would be sold on campus. Coca-Cola came down on the side of preserving its long-term reputation and franchise by concluding that it needed to support nonexclusive agreements in schools, allowing a range of beverages and brands to be available to students. As a result, there was no crisis with national education associations or parent-teacher groups, because the soft drink company listened, assessed the facts, and made a decision.

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Crisis Management: Chinese Toys Found to Be Fatal for Kids By Laurie Lattimore-Volkmann, PhD Dominican University China manufactured each of the 24 kinds of toys recalled for safety reasons in the United States in 2007, a record that is causing alarm among consumer advocates, parents, and regulators. One recall involved 1.5 million Thomas & Friends trains and rail components because the toys were coated at a factory in China with lead paint, which can damage brain cells, especially in children. Over all, the number of products made in China that are being recalled in the United States by the federal Consumer Product Safety Commission has doubled in the last five years, driving the total number of recalls in the country to a record 467 last year. It also means that China today is responsible for about 60 percent of all product recalls, compared with 36 percent in 2000. Toys made in China make up 70 to 80 percent of all the toys sold in the United States, according to the Toy

Mini Case 1.1

Chapter 1 • The ● Nature of Public Relations

Industry Association. This string of toy recalls is inspiring new demands for better safety enforcement by U.S. regulators and importers, as well as by the government and industry in China. As the vice president of public relations for a major American toy company that sends more than half its toy manufacturing to China (and who has had to do a recall in the last year), how do you handle this crisis with the following publics: • Shareholders: What changes do you make to ensure safe products going forward? How do you avoid another multimillion-dollar loss from a product recall? • Consumers: What do you do to (1) reassure them about current products and (2) approach marketing of future products? • Government: How will you approach regulators to convince them you are taking care of the problem

and assure them this will not be a continuing problem with your Chinese plant? • Employees: What kinds of changes in process need to be made to be absolutely sure your toys are safe? Are these realistic from a business standpoint? What challenges will you face in implementing these? • Knowing that future recalls will paralyze the company, but that changes are likely to cost millions of dollars and higher costs could decrease sales and profit, what would your argument be to your CEO that it is important to incur such costs versus the potential public relations cost of doing nothing? Source: Eric S. Lipton and David Barboza, “As More Toys Are Recalled, Trail Ends in China,” www.nytimes.com, June 19, 2007.

BP should have learned lessons from these earlier oil spill crises when the explosion of its off-shore well happened in 2010, but it hadn’t. The BP spokespersons said the right things in the beginning, but the company didn’t follow through with what it said it would do. Cohn & Wolfe, an international public relations ﬁrm, recommends to its clients that they begin their crisis planning with an audit of potential internal and external problems. This would include identifying key publics who might be affected by the crisis. See table 1.2 for a sample listing.

TABLE 1.2

Key Audiences Who Might Be Affected by a Crisis

Employees

Licensees

Community leaders

Investors

Vendors

Law enforcement officials

Bankers

Union officials

Dealers and distributors

Suppliers

Neighbors

Competitors

Adversarial groups

Retirees/pension recipients

Plaintiff attorneys

Franchisees

Stockholders

Regulatory officials

Customers/clients

Security analysts

Educators

Business groups

Politicians

Industry-at-large

Source: www.crisisexperts.com, Institute for Crisis Management.

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Part I • The Profession

The agency then develops a tailor-made plan that addresses ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

SOCIAL MEDIA

How to increase support from allies. Creation of a response manual to use if and when a crisis occurs. Formation of a crisis committee. Development of simulation and training exercises. Formation of a contingency plan. Determination of how the corporation’s position can be strengthened during the crisis.

New communication technologies have always inﬂuenced public relations practice, but perhaps none so profoundly as the Internet, e-mail, and the social media. Budgets have been reallocated to make optimal use of digital technology. An array of new practices capitalizes on the immediacy and audience involvement to keep key constituencies aware of current developments. These include crisis management programs, multimedia campaigns, round-the-clock media relations programs, and partnerships and alliances with new and existing groups. The results show up in sales to new customers, in repeated sales to existing ones, and in lower operating costs because technology helped create a dialogue between organizations and activist groups. The Internet and its use with social media have fundamentally changed how journalists and businesses operate. Grasping this involves knowing a few basics. First, the Internet alters the way people get information from organizations. Communicating through the Internet means that the general public or members of an organization’s constituencies are pulling information off the Net about the organization rather than the organization pushing information onto them as is the case with regular news release dissemination. Second, communication is not just top-down and one-to-many. The social uses of the Internet through Facebook, Twitter, and blogs have allowed the constituencies to get involved in a two-way communication not only with the organization, but also with each

Musician Slash, left, and musician Steven Tyler, with microphone, perform during the 4th Annual MusiCares benefit concert in Hollywood to help provide access to addiction recovery treatment for members of the music community.

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations

other. Customers, media reporters, investors, industry analysts, employees, government regulators, activists, and many others can not only get whatever information they want, but also can interact with others to become a formidable force as a public in reacting to an organization. These individuals no longer have to go through a public relations practitioner to get the information or react to information about an organization. The “gatekeeping” function in an organization that was previously provided by public relations practitioners or editors is no longer viable. Therefore, the key for the public relations practitioner has become to understand how to use that interaction in a positive way. Implications for media relations, investor relations, marketing, internal communications, and activists have caused a paradigm shift in public relations. Dr. Donald Wright argues that this shift opens the door to full two-way communication between an organization and its publics.5 Throughout this book, but especially in Chapter 9, Social and Traditional Media Relations, we will look at the implications of social media in the various practices and publics involved in public relations.

The opening of worldwide markets throughout the latter part of PUBLIC RELATIONS the 20th century was a financial boon that redirected public reAND GLOBAL MARKETS lations practice and the structure of the industry. Consider, for instance, that most of the world’s largest public relations agencies are now owned by advertising agencies. In turn, some of these already-big advertising/public relations firms are owned by or linked to other multinational conglomerates. The result is that these firms have sufficient resources to mount extensive public relations initiatives almost anywhere at any time. And that’s exactly what’s happening with 40 to 50 percent of annual revenue from leading U.S. advertising/ public relations firms now coming from outside the United States. Writing in Communication World, Brian Heiss and Edie Fraser reported that in worldclass companies, the communication function leads in supporting the corporation in its globalization effort: “In the current era of globalization, corporations are faced with pressure to gain international market share and stockholders have made it increasingly important to keep global sales and stock prices high. The claims seem reflected in practice.”6 To meet these challenges and to elevate a corporation’s global reputation, corporate communication teams need to be part of designing and implementing global strategy. Doing public relations internationally involves infinitely more coordination and synchronization with foreign business partners, overseas local public relations firms, and a host of cultural norms and regulations not adhered to in the United States. Heiss and Fraser have noted some of the ways in which public relations efforts are coordinated between headquarters and local subsidiaries on a global scale: “Globalization has increased the need for clear, consistent, and central corporate messages with adaptation at the local level. Companies must reach customers, potential customers, alliances, partners, employees, stakeholders, the investment community, distributors, media, government, trade, and professional constituencies.”7 The trick seems to be for the multinational corporations to enhance their overall reputations and brand identities in ways that take advantage of local cultures, media availability, and political climates. At the corporate level, the public relations function has three distinct aspects. In one role public relations practitioners represent multinational corporations at home, dealing with public opinion and governmental activities that relate both to specific corporations and to multinational enterprises as a whole. The second role of multinational public relations is to help bridge the communication gap that inevitably exists between foreign operations and top management in the world headquarters. Finally,

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Part I • The Profession

public relations must be conducted in the corporation’s various host countries. All this points to better internal communication. Though public relations has been a critical component in the unfolding of the global economy, many practitioners are skeptical about the future. For example, will the big marketing/advertising/public relations conglomerates give disproportionate emphasis to customers at the expense of such other key constituencies as employees, local and national governments, and community and activist groups in the overseas communities where these ﬁrms are doing business for their corporate clients? Concerns of at least equal import arise at the societal level, where thoughtful observers in other countries fear that economic globalization will lower their nations’ and their citizens’ economic viability by promoting consumer expectations that can’t be met given substandard wages, cultural differences, and infrastructures that don’t readily accommodate the global economy.

New communication technologies speed up every dimension of the practice of public relations as well as encourage new and uncharted relationship building with established and emergent constituencies. The capital that’s been required to finance and shape the global economy into a more or less single market system places enormous pressures on short-term profits, on cutting planning cycles from years to months to weeks, not to mention the rush to adapt public relations procedures and practices to fit the cultural prerequisites of countries and regions of the world that businesses enter. Taken together, these societal-level changes signal whole new formulations for public relations work. Today, public relations and corporate communication work is being integrated into broader communication processes to integrate organizations’ operations as never before. By redefining themselves as communication experts and consultants— rather than more narrowly defined technical specialists in public relations—today’s university communication and public relations majors will find themselves working within a more comprehensive public relations and communication management practice. Try to imagine the extent of the long-range reputation management tasks facing organizations in light of the dot-com bulge and bust as well as the recent unscrupulous accounting practices to inflate stock prices. While all this was going on, most public relations practitioners—technically competent and highly motivated as they were— failed to understand and communicate the adverse effects of short-term profit taking on the protection and enhancement of the long-term reputation, the brands, and the franchise. At least some of the blame might go to the mixed messages that people receive from organizations because content is added to their organizational intranets and extranets in such a haphazard manner. Rarely has a single unit been given responsibility for coordinating corporate Internet content so that the core themes and messages would dominate or at least be present most of the time. Instead, intranet and extranet sites became filled with submissions coming directly from the CEO’s office, from the finance and legal offices, from marketing, from human resources, from various operating and production units, from public relations—not to mention the thousands of many and varied individual submissions. Under these conditions, is it any wonder that users found it difficult to see the organization’s big picture? To overcome the clutter and to highlight key messages,

THE CHANGING INSTITUTION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations

Jack Bergen, ﬁrst president of the Council of Public Relations Firms, believes that intranet and extranet content control should reside in public relations and corporate communication, rather than either the information technology (IT) or human resources (HR) departments: The website is your company in cyberspace. You should control it. It helps you manage coalitions and it’s the cheapest way of getting to a lot of people at one time. Use internal and external websites to develop communities of interest, building coalitions and establishing relationships with employees, customers, and other stakeholders.

Rethinking Internal Communication Loss of shareholder value and declining consumer confidence and organizational support have prompted many corporations, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies to reexamine their core communication processes and ways of doing things. In doing so, they can’t help but note that increased employee productivity gains have boosted the bottom line. Using communication to increase productivity introduces whole new directions for the internal communication work taken on by public relations practitioners. Public relations professionals with some training in organizational communication are pivotal corporate change agents. They often begin with communication audits or diagnostic tools designed to assess the effectiveness of various internal communication processes. Audits uncover mismatches between information sought and information received, between channels used and channels preferred, satisfaction with the communication climate, and the most appropriate communication networks for different types of information. Results from communication audits help public relations practitioners and communication managers improve organizational effectiveness by incorporating new ideas more quickly and by being more responsive to changes in the overall environment(s) in which the organization operates. The need for this type of public relations expertise appears to be supported in findings from the 2002 Middleberg/Ross survey showing that 81 percent of respondents agreed that the ability to manage change would be the most fundamental component of business success in coming years.8

Changing Organizational Structures and Settings The work and structure of public relations firms or agencies and corporate or organizational departments are changing relatively quickly as well and largely in response to technology, globalization, and the new publics whose interests have been previously shortsighted or overlooked. One reason for the changes is that it is not altogether clear that existing public relations work captures a significant amount of the communication activity in organizations. In recent years, for example, corporations have willingly parceled out traditional public relations functions such that (1) the investor or financial relations component reports through either the financial or the legal department, (2) the employee and newsletter work reports through the HR department, which also takes on all sorts of communication training, (3) the product publicity and consumer relations work gets assigned to the marketing division, and (4) the public affairs and government relations work is directed to the legal department. Some believe that these varied reporting relationships represent encroachment on the public relations function, whereas others argue that such placement reflects the decentralized nature of communication work in organizations.

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Part I • The Profession

Another persistent and growing trend is for alternative work arrangements outside traditional firms and departments. This might include public relations specialists working as part of virtual teams on some sort of global project where the only contact with team members is through the Internet. Such work often requires dual reporting relationships, with the project supervisor being in charge until the work is completed, when the public relations practitioner again becomes more the direct responsibility of managers in her or his home department. The last two decades have seen the rise of thousands of independent public relations and communication consultants who either work totally on their own or distribute some of their extra work to other independent consultants on a contract basis. Within the public relations field, independent consultants are now thought to represent the largest single job category or classification. Within firms and agencies one clear trend is the move toward specialization by industry or by general practice areas such as health care or technology. Today, account coordinators and account managers are assigned to fewer clients and oftentimes within the same industry such as health care, technology, consumer goods, or financial services. As well, the opening of global markets has brought about intensive consolidation of public relations agencies by advertising agencies. When public relations agencies are merged into advertising ones, the tendency is for relatively more of the work to be focused on product publicity or developing the public relations practices within an overall marketing framework. Despite mergers and globalization impacts, very few of even the biggest public relations firms have or want the capacity to service their clients’ needs in each of the world’s cities and regions where the client does business. That’s because many clients prefer the combination of having the overall public relations planning done by a single, multinational firm, but then parceling out much of the implementation work to local agencies who no doubt better understand the cultural traditions in their cities, the customary ways of working with local news media, and the community leaders whose support is often useful in mounting community and governmental relations efforts as well as in staging special events. The larger independent public relations firms or agencies respond to the need for localization by becoming partners or affiliates in networks of independent professionals located around the world. The largest of these are PRIO (Public Relations Organization International), Pinnacle Worldwide, IPREX (International Public Relations Exchange), and World Communication Group. Affiliating with networks of other independently owned firms provides opportunities to compete more effectively with multinational public relations and advertising conglomerates. On the organizational or client side there’s an ongoing examination of the mix of communication programs and activities undertaken in-house versus those assigned to firms or independent consultants and vendors. Typically, the communications or public relations department handles the core strategic planning functions in-house while subcontracting specific program planning, execution, and communication support services to firms and independents. In fact, during periods of economic recession corporate communicators are likely to bring more of the planning work back in-house, thereby casting the firm in more supportive and implementing roles. In healthier economic periods, though, what’s left for the corporate communication department are developing media relations, managing issues and crises, and consulting with top management on long-term reputation management issues. Work that is typically outsourced includes routine media relations, some product publicity, events

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations

Customers surf the Internet in Shinsei Bank in Tokyo where a Starbucks serves its vast array of coffees. Starbucks has built its brand image without costly advertising.

management, and selected community relations functions. A few corporations have adopted an in-house creative services model under which corporate communication specialists are assigned to various divisions or brands, where they act like account executives for a firm or agency. Because the global reach of public relations practice is changing so quickly, it’s hard to know exactly how many public relations practitioners there are around the world, but the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that there were 243,000 public relations specialists in the United States in 2006 and forecast that to rise to 286,000 by 2016.9 In fact, U.S. organizations spend more than $10 billion annually on public relations. Worldwide, the public relations industry in Europe, including the Commonwealth of Independent States and former Soviet-bloc countries, is roughly one-third the size of the U.S. industry. Next come Asian countries, especially Japan, China, Hong Kong, Korea, Singapore, and Malaysia. The field is growing rapidly in Latin America and somewhat in Africa’s fastest growing economies. As shown in figure 1.1, within the United States, it’s estimated that roughly one-third of all public relations practitioners work for agencies. Some of those agencies focus on public relations, but others combine public relations with marketing communication or advertising. Another third of practitioners work for corporations, including consumer goods such as consumer electronics, manufacturing, financial, and investment businesses; insurance firms; industrial firms; and the entertainment and media industries. Trade associations, educational institutions, and foundations employ about one-seventh of the practitioners, and health

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THE SCOPE OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY

Associations 14% Corporations 33%

Health Care 10% Government 5%

PR Consultants/Agencies 33%

Religious and Charitable Orgs. 5%

FIGURE 1.1 Where U.S. Public Relations Practitioners Work

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Part I • The Profession

care about one-tenth. Municipal, county, state, and federal government agencies account for about 5 percent, as do social welfare, charitable, and religious associations.

More than at any time in the past, today’s public relations practitioner is better educated, better paid, and more prepared to take on a range of strategic planning and communication functions for organizations of all kinds. The following subsections describe the principal ﬁndings from a large-scale U.S. and Canadian study of the profession.10 The study was conducted by the two largest professional associations in public relations—the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC).

A PROFILE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS

Education Two-thirds (65%) of public relations practitioners are college and university graduates with bachelor’s degrees, and almost half say their degree programs focused on public relations. Almost 300 universities have student public relations chapters. Approximately 10,000 students are members of PRSSA, the Public Relations Student Society of America (see spotlight 1.2). Increasingly more practitioners have not only a bachelor’s degree but advanced degrees as well. More than 30 percent, or almost a third, had master’s degrees, up from 27 percent ﬁve years earlier. Of those, close to half the master’s degrees were in communications, public relations, or journalism or related media ﬁelds. Another 40 percent were master of business administration (MBA) degrees. The remaining 10 to 15 percent came from a range of related graduate majors. And surprisingly, an additional 2 percent of those surveyed held doctorate or PhD degrees. Just under one-fourth (24%) of communicators surveyed have also passed national accreditation exams administered by either the IABC or the PRSA.11

Salaries Salary figures can change dramatically from year to year. A good place to check a variety of salary figures for public relations is www.salary.com (search by using “public relations” as keywords and put in your desired location). According to salary.com, in 2010 the mean salary for a beginning public relations specialist in Chicago was $48,000 plus benefits and bonuses. A public relations director in Chicago had a mean salary of $87,000 plus benefits and bonuses. The top public relations executives at a few major corporations, however, make more than $500,000 annually.12 The Council of Public Relations Firms says that account executives with 2–5 years’ experience typically make between $35,000 and $50,000 plus benefits and bonuses. An account supervisor with 5 –10 years’ experience makes between $55,000 and $85,000 plus benefits and bonuses. The senior vice president with 10 or more years of experience is likely to make between $120,000 and $175,000 plus benefits and bonuses.13 In table 1.3 the base salary figures for public relations agency employees are shown from a PRSA 2010 salary report done by Spring Associates. The latest salary survey done by PRSA found the average public relations practitioner’s salary was $69,000 plus $10,000 bonus. The average public relations consultant made $110,000 with $20,000 in bonuses.14

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Public Relations Student Society of America Today students in public relations can be involved in one of 284 chapters of the Public Relations Student Society of America, an educational division of the parent Public Relations Society of America. In 2007, there were more than 9,600 student members of PRSSA across the United States. This was not always the case. PRSSA was founded at the annual meeting of PRSA on November 11, 1967, in Philadelphia, with the support of J. Carroll Bateman, president of the society that year. Today, the PRSSA case study competition is named for Bateman. Public relations professionals had been looking at involving students in the professional society since 1950. The first nine chapters were charted in early 1968, with five more added before the year ended. Dr. Frederick Teahan, APR, vice president for education for PRSA and

TABLE 1.3

Spotlight 1.2 founding father of PRSSA, wrote the following about PRSSA’s first two decades: “What an unlikely time it was for the PRSA leadership to create a junior branch of the society. . . . Riots devastated cities. Violent protests about involvement in Vietnam were commonplace. The assassination of public figures both sickened and frightened. Widespread radicalism assaulted all American institutions—religion, government, the military, democracy. Universities themselves were denounced as ‘irrelevant.’ And all of this was inevitably connected in the popular mind with students. The champions of a public relations society of young collegiates, however, were undaunted. Radicalism appeared to be absent from the ranks of these pre-professionals.” It may have been an unlikely time to start, but PRSSA grew rapidly. It created its own national conference

in 1976. One major requirement for a chapter was the number of public relations courses offered by the unit in which public relations was taught. That number increased to five public relations courses offered by the unit in 1988. That remains the standard. In its 40th anniversary year, 2007, the friends of PRSSA, called Champions, published PRSSA, A Brief History as a gift to the 81,000 PRSSA alumni and the generations of future students to come. Source: F. H. “Chris” Teahan, A Brief History: The First Two Decades, and Susan Gonders and Barbara DeSanto, A Brief History: The Second Two Decades (New York: Public Relations Society of America, 2007).

PR Agency Base Salaries 2010

Position

Executive Vice President

Nationwide

Combined Cities*

$135,000

$157,000

115,000

134,000

Vice President

93,000

109,000

Account Supervisor

63,000

72,800

Senior Account Exec.

53,000

59,500

Account Executive

45,000

50,100

Senior Vice President

*Combined cities: New York, Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles. Source: “Official PR Salary & Bonus Report,“ 2010 Edition, Spring Associates, Inc., New York, NY.

Age and Gender The average age for those PRSA and IABC members surveyed was 39. It’s important to note that the average age of practitioners has been dropping annually for at least the past decade. More than 7 in 10 of the practitioners (71%) were female. In fact, the female:male ratio has nearly reversed itself in the last 25 or 30 years. Even so, men continue to hold proportionately more of the top managerial public relations posts, primarily because they have spent a greater number of years in the ﬁeld. Salary differences between males and females is but one of the gender issues we consider later.15 21

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Part I • The Profession

The Intern Assignment

Summary Case Study

ou have been fortunate to get a paid internship for the summer working with Marissa and the public relations agency handling the Microsoft account. Marissa wants to do something this summer as a social marketing project. Your first assignment is to think about various social marketing projects that Microsoft might be involved with and to look at what publics and communication tools might be used. Answer the following questions: 1. What social projects would fit best with Microsoft in its northwestern United States location? Provide three ideas. 2. Who might be Microsoft’s key external publics for one of these projects? 3. Who are Microsoft’s key internal publics, and how would you want to involve them? 4. What media would you want to use in this project? 5. What other communication tools might work well?

Summar y For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

Key Terms

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Public relations is a management and relationship-building function based on effective two-way communication between an organization and its stakeholders. This function is carried out by public relations practitioners whose duties include a wide range of skills from effective writing to strategic planning. The public relations practitioner today is better educated, better paid, and better prepared to work in all types of organizations. At advanced levels public relations leaders design and execute communication campaigns, contribute to organizational strategic planning and decision making, and assume responsibility for building and maintaining the organization’s image and reputation. Public relations today faces continual challenges, including the increased need for effective strategies for crisis communication, the developing avenues of interaction with stakeholders through the new social media, the evolving global public relations community and practice, and the changing organizational structure needed to meet these challenges. While no exact figure of public relations practitioners in the United States is available, the Labor Bureau estimates there are about a quarter of a million public relations professionals here. However, public relations is a global function that is particularly fast-growing in Eastern Europe. Europe itself has about one-third the number of public relations practitioners in the United States. Asia is also a fastgrowing region of the world for public relations followed by Latin America and then Africa.

crisis Internet public affairs

public relations publics social marketing

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Chapter 1 • The Nature of Public Relations 1. Careers in Public Relations: A Guide to Opportunities in a Dynamic Industry, Council of Public Relations Firms, retrieved from www.prfirms.org on Oct. 30, 2010, p. 8. 2. Charles S. Steinberg, The Creation of Consent: Public Relations in Practice (New York: Hastings House, 1975), p. 9. 3. Institute for Crisis Management Web site, www.crisisexperts.com, Feb. 25, 2001. 4. Ibid. 5. Donald Wright, “Corporate Communications Policy Concerning the Internet: A Survey of the Nation’s SeniorLevel Corporate Public Relations Officers,” Institute for Public Relations, 1998. 6. Brian Heiss and Edie Fraser, “Is Your Company Ready to Go Global?” Communication World 17, no. 6 (August/ September 2000), p. 29. 7. Heiss and Fraser, pp. 29–30. 8. Don Middleberg and Steven Ross, “The Media Survey,” Middleberg/Ross survey. Don Middleberg and Steven Ross,

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“The Middleberg/Ross Media Survey: Change and Its Impact on Communications,” Eighth Annual National Survey, 2002.

Notes

9. Bureau of Labor Statistics web site, http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos086.htm on Feb. 14, 2008. 10. Profile 2000—A Survey of the Profession (International Association of Business Communicators and Public Relations Society of America, 2001), p. A22. 11. Ibid., p. A5. 12. Retrieved from www.salary.com on Oct. 31, 2010. 13. Careers in Public Relations: A Guide to Opportunities in a Dynamic Industry, Council of Public Relations Firms, retrieved from www.prfirms.org on Oct. 30, 2010, p. 8. 14. Profile 2000—A Survey of the Profession, p. A5. 15. Ibid.

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C H A P T E R

The History of Public Relations OUTLINE PREVIEW RHETORICIAN AND PRESS AGENT TRADITION American Antecedents to Public Relations Public Relations in a Young Nation P. T. Barnum and Press Agentry The Downside of Press Agentry JOURNALISTIC AND PUBLICITY TRADITION Early Public Relations Consultants Not-for-Profit Organizations and Social Movements Early Corporate Communications Departments Early Government Public Relations THE PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGN TRADITION The Creel Committee Edward Bernays RELATIONSHIP-BUILDING AND TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION TRADITION Arthur Page The Depression and World War II Post–World War II Harold Burson Moss Kendrix Professionalization of the Field New Stakeholder Groups THE GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY The Internet to Social Media Global Communication Demands Proliferating Communication Channels CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES 24

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PREVIEW

ewspapers have carried advertising since the days of the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin, who was also a writer and an editor, published the most widely read

newspaper in the American colonies. His Pennsylvania Gazette carried advertising for such everyday items as soap, books, and stationery. Franklin even wrote some of his own ads, one of which praises the superior features of the pot-bellied stove he invented. People with a message to communicate have long recognized the power of public opinion to move others to action. That’s why public opinion is one of the three factors responsible for the growth of public relations as a communications medium. The other two are competition among the many institutions that rely on public support and the development of media through which these organizations can reach the public. These three factors have motivated the evolution of public relations through four different traditions: ■

The rhetorician and press agent tradition

■

The journalistic and publicity tradition

■

The persuasive communication campaign tradition

■

The relationship-building and two-way communication tradition As we look at each of these traditions throughout the chapter, you’ll see that like many

historical trends, they overlap somewhat. Each has been a product of the larger economic, political, social, and cultural forces of the time, as well as of the growth of mass media and specialized communications channels. We can think of them as a historical continuum of the strategic uses of communication by business organizations, social movements, not-for-profit groups, government agencies, and community groups. 25

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But it is the lessons we learn from history that make its study important for us. In public relations we have the benefit of important principles developed and employed by many 20th-century practitioners. Ivy Lee teaches us that we must take positive action in order to have something worth communicating. Harold Burson, who built the largest public relations agency in the world, stresses a business culture of “caring and sharing,” or “prize the individual and celebrate the team.” Edward Bernays teaches us the importance of applying social science techniques to influence behavior. This chapter presents the many individuals and social movements that have shaped our practice of public relations today. Learn the principles they developed, and be creative in applying them to the public relations discipline of the future.

The forerunner to modern-day public relations practice can be found in the work of rhetoricians, press agents, and other promoters. Since early times speechmakers, called rhetoricians, provided such communication services as speech-writing, speaking on clients’ behalf, training for difficult questions, and persuasion skills. For example, by Plato’s day, ca. 427 to 347 BC, rhetoric as a distinct discipline was well established in Greece. The foremost rhetorician was Gorgias of Leontinium in Sicily (ca. 483–375 BC) who believed that the rhetorician’s job was to foster persuasive skills more than it was to determine if arguments and claims were true or false, according to Helio Fred Garcia.1 Garcia also noted that even in classical Athens, public opinion determined matters both large and small, from important public works projects such as building city walls to the appointment of generals and other high officeholders to settling matters of criminal justice.2 Persuasive skills have been used to influence the public and public opinion for hundreds of years. Artifacts of what can be construed as public relations materials survive from ancient India, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome. The Crusades, the exploits of Lady Godiva, the actions of Martin Luther, and the adventures of the conquistadores seeking El Dorado have all been explained as examples of ancient public relations activities. The creation in the 17th century of the Congregatio de Propaganda (the congregation for propagating the faith) by the Roman Catholic Church is often pointed to as a keystone in the development of public relations. The action brought us the term propaganda but was not a significant development in a church that exists to propagate the faith.

RHETORICIAN AND PRESS AGENT TRADITION

American Antecedents to Public Relations Numerous examples of public relations–like activities were identifiable in the early days of American settlement as each of the colonies used publicity techniques to attract settlers. In 1641, Harvard College initiated the first systematic U.S. fund-raising campaign, which was supported by the first fund-raising brochure, New England’s First Fruits. 26

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Chapter 2 • The History of Public Relations

Boston Tea Party staged by Samuel Adams.

In 1758, King’s College (now Columbia University) issued the first press release—to announce graduation exercises. Publicity techniques were even more prevalent at the time of the American Revolution and all subsequent conflicts or situations when power has been threatened or when public support is needed. Indeed, public relations has prospered most in times of extreme pressure or crisis. Such were the circ*mstances preceding the American Revolutionary War, when Samuel Adams initiated what can be called a public relations campaign. Adams was to the communication dimension of the Revolutionary War what George Washington was to the military dimension. Adams recognized the value of using symbols like the Liberty Tree that were easily identifiable and aroused emotions. Adams also used slogans that are still remembered, like “taxation without representation is tyranny.” Because he got his side of the story to a receptive public first, shots fired into a group of rowdies became known as “the Boston Massacre.” Adams directed a sustained-saturation public relations campaign using all available media. He staged the Boston Tea Party to influence public opinion. In the Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence, he provided the organizational structure to implement the actions made possible by his public relations campaign.3

Public Relations in a Young Nation In the infancy of the United States, public relations was practiced primarily in the political sphere. The publication and dissemination of the Federalist Papers, which led to the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, has been called “history’s finest public relations job.”4 Early in his presidency, Andrew Jackson appointed Amos Kendall, a member of the famous Kitchen Cabinet, to serve as the candidate’s pollster, counselor, ghostwriter, and publicist. Although he did not hold the title, Kendall effectively served as the first presidential press secretary and congressional liaison. Jackson, who could not express himself very well, used Kendall as a specialist to convey his ideas to Congress and the

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American people through the newspapers of the day. Newspapers, for the ﬁrst time, were beginning to reach a rising middle class as a result of urbanization and advances in public education and literacy rates. Still, communication was primarily face-to-face because the majority of Americans lived on farms or in small communities. Publicity drove the settlement of the American western frontier, the biggest issue of the time. From Daniel Boone to Davy Crockett to Buffalo Bill, skillful and sometimes exaggerated promotion was the way to move easterners to the west. Even Jesse James got into the act when he issued a news release about one of his particularly daring train robberies. Business leaders, too, became aware of publicity’s virtues. When Burlington Railroad initiated its 1858 publicity campaign, Charles Russell Lowell stated, “We must blow as loud a trumpet as the merits of our position warrants.”5

P. T. Barnum and Press Agentry Phineas T. Barnum has always been considered the master of press agentry, a promoter with endless imagination. Barnum promoted the midget General Tom Thumb; Jenny Lind, the “Swedish Nightingale”; Jumbo, the elephant; and Joice Heath, a 161-yearold woman (it was claimed, although an autopsy report after her death put her age at 70–80). Barnum used publicity to make money, pure and simple. When P. T. Barnum died, the London Times fondly called him a “harmless deceiver.” As long as press agentry is used to promote circuses, entertainment, and professional sports, its negative potential is limited. Its use in business and politics, however, is more threatening.

The Downside of Press Agentry In the quest to gain media and public attention, press agentry can become increasingly outrageous, exploitive, and manipulative. Moreover, the manipulative attempt to gain the attention of the public through the media has an even darker side. In 1878, French sociologist Paul Brousse described what he called the “propaganda of the deed.” The term refers to a provocative act committed to draw attention toward an idea or grievance in order to get publicity. For European anarchists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, propaganda of the deed meant bombing, murder, and assassination. European sociologists feared that press agents and rhetoricians could incite mob rule, thereby making governments and societies less stable. This is the same tactic used by terrorist organizations through attacks such as the 9/11 suicide ﬂights into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Terrorists try to use their attacks to draw attention to their propaganda.

Societal conditions surrounding the 19th-century American Industrial Revolution paved the way for a new dominant model of public relations practice. The Industrial Revolution hit America with full force during the last quarter of the 19th century. The nation’s population doubled as immigrants rushed to the land of opportunity. New products and new patterns of life rapidly emerged. The enforced rhythm of the factory, the stress of urban life, and the vast distinction between the bosses and the workers were new and not always pleasant realities of American life. In fact, social harmony was generally breaking down as evidenced by rising conﬂict and confrontation.

JOURNALISTIC AND PUBLICITY TRADITION

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Businesses were racking up enormous profits but were losing public support in the process. Workers began to organize themselves into unions, and they perceived their interests in many cases as directly opposed to those of business owners. Business was at once highly successful and increasingly besieged. Historian Merle Curti wrote that corporations gradually began to realize the importance of combating hostility and to court public favor. The expert in the field of public relations was an inevitable phenomenon in view of the need for the services he or she could provide.6 In short, industrialization altered the structure of society and gave rise to conditions requiring public relations expertise. By the early 1900s, business was forced to submit to more and more governmental regulations and encountered increasingly hostile criticism from the press. Corporations recognized that deception, manipulation, and self-serving half-truths were inappropriate responses to challenges raised by media and government. As a result, public relations became a specialized function broadly accepted in major corporations in order to counter hostility by courting public support. Not surprisingly, the term public relations came into use at this time; its earliest appearance was probably in Dorman B. Eaton’s 1882 address to the graduating class of the Yale Law School. The concept, as noted, was not new, but the coining of the term suggested a new level of importance and consciousness. As historian Marc Bloch has commented, “The advent of a name is a great event even when the object named is not new, for the act of naming signifies conscious awareness.”7

Early Public Relations Consultants Former journalists began to find it possible to make a living in the public relations business. In 1900, George V. S. Michaelis established the Publicity Bureau in Boston. His job, as he saw it, was to gather factual information about his clients for distribution to newspapers. By 1906, his major clients were the nation’s railroads. The railroads engaged the Publicity Bureau to head off adverse regulations being promoted by Theodore Roosevelt. The agency used fact-finding publicity and personal contact to push its clients’ position, but it kept secret its connection with the railroad. The Publicity Bureau staff increased dramatically, with offices set up in New York, Chicago, Washington, D.C., St. Louis, and Topeka and with agents in California, South Dakota, and elsewhere. President Theodore Roosevelt, who saw the presidency as “a bully pulpit,” proved to be more than a match for the Publicity Bureau. The first president to make extensive use of press conferences and interviews, Roosevelt was said to rule the country from the newspapers’ front pages. The passage of the Hepburn Act extended government control over the railroad industry and represented a clear victory for the Roosevelt administration. The father of public relations and the man most credited with nurturing the fledgling public relations profession was Ivy Ledbetter Lee, son of a Georgia preacher. Lee was a reporter who, early on, saw better prospects in the publicity arena. After working in New York’s 1903 mayoral campaign and for the Democratic National Committee, Lee joined George Parker, another newspaper veteran, to form the nation’s third publicity agency in 1904. Two years later, coal operators George F. Baer and Associates hired the partnership to represent their interests during a strike in the anthracite mines. John Mitchell, leader of the labor forces, was quite open and conversant with the press, which treated him and his cause with considerable sympathy. The tight-lipped Baer would not even talk to the president of the United States.

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Lee took the assignment and persuaded Baer to open up. Then he promptly issued a Declaration of Principles to all newspaper city editors. The sentiments expressed in this document clearly indicated that public relations had entered its second stage. As Eric Goldman observed, “The public was no longer to be ignored, in the traditional manner of business, nor fooled, in the continuing manner of the press agent.”8 Lee declared that the public was to be informed: This is not a secret press bureau. All our work is done in the open. We aim to supply news. This is not an advertising agency; if you think any of our matter ought properly to go to your business ofﬁce, do not use it. Our matter is accurate. Further details on any subject treated will be supplied promptly, and any editor will be assisted most cheerfully in verifying directly any statement of fact. . . . In brief, our plan is, frankly and openly, on behalf of business concerns and public institutions, to supply to the press and public of the United States prompt and accurate information concerning subjects which it is of value and interest to the public to know about.9

In short, then, Lee’s idea was to tell the truth about his client organizations’ actions. He believed that if telling the truth damaged the organization, the organization should correct the problem so that the truth could be told without fear. That said, Lee’s railroad clients did not react well to this treatise. Public relations historian Ray Hiebert wrote, “Many an old-timer with the railroad was dismayed when, almost immediately, Lee began revolutionizing things, putting into effect his theories about absolute frankness with the press.”10 Lee’s publicity arsenal was not limited to news releases. In helping stave off railroad freight regulations, Lee published leaflets, folders, and bulletins for customers; company news for employees; and other material for important decision makers, including congressmen, state legislators, mayors and city councilmen, economists, bankers, college presidents, writers, and clergymen.11 Lee realized that a corporation could not hope to influence the public unless its publicity was supported by good works. Performance determines publicity. To achieve necessary and positive consistency between words and actions, Lee urged his clients in business and industry to align their senses and their policies with the public interest. The public, Lee thought, was made up of rational human beings who, if they are given complete and accurate information, would make the right decisions. As a result, he said that his job was interpreting the Pennsylvania Railroad to the public and interpreting the public to the Pennsylvania Railroad. In short, Lee saw himself as a mediator bridging the concerns of business and the public’s interests. Then, in 1914, Lee was hired to remake the image of John D. Rockefeller, the owner of Standard Oil of New Jersey. Nine thousand coal miners went on strike in southern Colorado in September 1913. The Rockefellers were the principal stockholders in the largest company involved, the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company. In April 1914, an accidental shot resulted in a battle in which several miners, two women, and 11 children were killed. The Rockefellers were blamed, and their name was damaged. Lee advised the younger Rockefeller to practice a policy of openness. After the strike, Lee advised Rockefeller to visit the mining camps to observe conditions firsthand. Lee died in disgrace, the victim of his own public relations policies. In the early 1930s, Lee advised the Interessen Gemeinschaft Farben Industrie, more commonly known as I. G. Farben, or the German Dye Trust. Eventually the Nazis took over, and the company asked Lee for advice on how to improve German–American relations. He told the company to be open and honest. Shortly before his death, Lee’s connections with the Germans were investigated by the House Special Committee on Un-American

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Activities. Headlines screamed “Lee Exposed as Hitler Press Agent,” and his name was blackened throughout the United States. Other early publicity ofﬁces were established by William Wolf Smith in Washington, D.C., in 1902; Hamilton Wright, San Francisco, 1908; Pendleton Dudley, New York’s Wall Street district, 1909; Rex Harlow, Oklahoma City, 1912; and Fred Lewis and William Seabrook, Atlanta, 1912.

Not-for-Profit Organizations and Social Movements Not-for-profit organizations, including colleges, churches, charitable causes, and health and welfare agencies, began to use publicity extensively in the early 20th century. In 1899, Anson Phelps Stokes converted Yale University’s Office of the Secretary into an effective alumni and public relations office. Harvard president Charles W. Eliot, who spoke as early as 1869 on the need to influence public opinion toward advancement of learning, was among the Publicity Bureau’s first clients in 1900. The University of Pennsylvania and the University of Wisconsin set up publicity bureaus in 1904. By 1917, the Association of American College News Bureaus was formed. In 1905, the Washington, D.C., YMCA sought $350,000 for a new building. For the first time, a full-time publicist was engaged in a fund-raising drive. By 1908, the Red Cross and the National Tuberculosis Association were making extensive use of publicity agents. The New York Orphan Asylum was paying a publicity man $75 per month. Churches and church groups were quick to recognize the value of an organized publicity effort. New York City’s Trinity Episcopal Church was one of Pendleton Dudley’s first clients in 1909. The Seventh-Day Adventist Church established its publicity office in 1912. George Parker, Ivy Lee’s old partner, was appointed to handle publicity for the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1913. Though largely neglected in histories of public relations, the social movements of the day adopted the same public relations techniques that were used by other not-for-profit organizations, according to public relations scholar Karen Miller. Moreover, she notes that public relations texts give virtually no attention to the women who headed such movements, including Clara Barton, Margaret Sanger, Susan B. Anthony, Ida B. Wells, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Each of these women used public relations techniques of the day most effectively to inform the public about controversial issues despite the fact that their work is generally considered to be outside the business frame of the field.12

Early Corporate Communications Departments As early as 1883, AT&T leader Theodore Vail expressed concern about the company’s relationship with the public and the public’s conflicts with the company. He built support from the middle class for AT&T programs by implementing cut-rate phone bills, friendly greetings from the telephone operator, employee morale programs, and paid advertising. In 1907, he hired James Drummond Ellsworth for AT&T’s public relations. Ellsworth promoted efficient operation and consideration of customers’ needs, a systematic method for answering complaints, and acceptance of governmental regulation as the price for operating a privately owned natural monopoly. By 1888, the Mutual Life Insurance Company employed Charles J. Smith to manage a “species of literary bureau.” A year later, George Westinghouse, head of Westinghouse Electric, established the first corporate communications department. Samuel Insull, an associate of George Westinghouse, rose to head the Chicago Edison Company, an electric utility. In 1903, he began to publish The Electric City, a magazine aimed at gaining the

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understanding and goodwill of the community. He pioneered films for public relations purposes in 1909, and in 1912 he introduced bill stuffers, messages to customers in their monthly statements. Among the greatest of industrial publicity users was Henry Ford. The Ford Company pioneered use of several public relations tools. The employee periodical Ford Times was begun in 1908 and continues today. In 1914, a corporate film department was established. Ford also surveyed 1,000 customers to gain insights into their attitudes and concerns. Astute corporate communicators began recognizing that well-informed employees could serve as ambassadors of corporate goodwill. In fact, George Michaelis, who had founded the Publicity Bureau in Boston, advised George Westinghouse in 1914 to pay more attention to internal “human relations.” Thus, employees became recognized as a significant public and an appropriately important audience for public relations efforts. By 1925, more than half of all manufacturing companies were publishing employee magazines.

Early Government Public Relations The greatest public relations effort in history, up to its time, was the one mounted in support of the U.S. effort in World War I. The military had utilized publicity for several years; the Marine Corps established a publicity bureau in Chicago in 1907. Never before had such a massive, multifaceted, coordinated program been mounted. Moreover, though often used by big business in a defensive fashion, public relations took the offensive when it came to war.

THE PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGN TRADITION

In many respects, the beginnings of the persuasive campaign tradition are embedded in the U.S. World War I publicity and propaganda program.

The Creel Committee

Woodrow Wilson set up a Committee on Public Information in 1917, and newspaperman George Creel was asked to run it. With a staff of journalists, scholars, artists, and others skilled at manipulating words and symbols, Creel mobilized the home front with a comprehensive propaganda bureau that utilized all media, including film and photography. Creel did not just work out of a central office; he decentralized the organization and the effort. Every industry had a special group of publicity workers tending to their particular contributions to the war effort. Political scientist Harold D. Lasswell was involved in the Creel organization. Looking back to assess the situation, Lasswell concluded, “Propaganda is one of the most powerful instrumentalities in the modern world.”13 Although the methods used by Creel’s committee were fairly standard tools of the public information model, the Creel committee achieved great success because it made use, without knowing it, of psychological principles of mass persuasion. Committee members constructed messages that appealed to what people believed and wanted to hear. Clearly, the Creel committee demonstrated the power of mass persuasion and social influence at a national level. The success prompted thoughtful Americans to give more concerted attention to the nature of public opinion and the role of the public in society. Educational philosopher John Dewey and his supporters believed that wartime propaganda and postwar

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societal focus on business development signaled that the citizenry was losing interest in civic life. In contrast, well-spoken political commentator Walter Lippmann professed that American society had grown too complex for the average citizen to understand. The government, he thought, should be inﬂuenced and run by experts who could interpret the public will in light of national needs and concerns. The Lippmann interpretation prompted professional persuaders like Edward Bernays to emphasize that the function of public relations was to change images and inﬂuence public perception of issues. Given the pro-business attitudes of the 1920s and 1930s, it’s little wonder that Lippmann’s ideas swamped Dewey’s. Critical scholar Margaret Duffy notes that Lippmann’s ideas were “grafted” by Edward Bernays, the focal practitioner of the persuasive communication campaign tradition.14

Edward Bernays The leading proponent of persuasion was clearly Edward Bernays, the nephew of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Bernays grew up with dinner-table social science discussions prior to joining Creel’s public information committee. After World War I he became a science writer and then a theater promoter, where he combined his journalistic and persuasion interests. Bernays understood that publics could be persuaded if the message supported their values and interests. In many ways, the thrust of his philosophy is made clear in his first book, Crystallizing Public Opinion. At the time, he saw public relations as being more or less synonymous with propaganda, which he defined as “the conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses.”15 Throughout his career Bernays described public relations as the science of creating circ*mstances, mounting events that are calculated to stand out as newsworthy, yet at the same time do not appear to be staged. Staged “media events” were clearly a defining characteristic of the agency that Bernays started in 1919 with Doris Fleischman, his future wife and partner. Bernays’s most well-known event was “Lights Golden Jubilee.” Underwritten in 1929 by General Electric and the National Electric Light Association, the jubilee media event recognized the 50-year anniversary of Thomas Edison’s invention of the electric lightbulb. Bernays cast the celebration as a premier testimony to the genius of American business and entrepreneurial spirit. It was staged as a massive display of lighting in Dearborn, Michigan, and at other locations around the world. Prior to the event Bernays orchestrated tremendous press coverage and magazine features, salutatory proclamations and endorsem*nts from mayors, governors, and other statesmen throughout the United States and western Europe. The real newsworthiness, however, came on the day of the event when the assembled dignitaries on the Dearborn platform included President Herbert Hoover, J. P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller Jr., Orville Wright, Madame Curie, and The New York Times publisher Adolph Ochs.

While Bernays was championing the persuasive campaign approach to public relations, a very different perspective was being set forth by Arthur Page, a successful businessman, public servant, writer, and editor.

RELATIONSHIP-BUILDING AND TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION TRADITION

Arthur Page Arthur Page was approached with an offer to become vice president of AT&T, succeeding the pioneer public relations specialist James D. Ellsworth. Page agreed to accept the

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position only on the condition that he would not be restricted to publicity in the traditional sense. He demanded and received a voice in company policy and insisted that the company’s performance be the determinant of its public reputation. Page maintained that all business in a democratic country begins with public permission and exists by public approval. If that be true, it follows that business should be cheerfully willing to tell the public what its policies are, what it is doing, and what it hopes to do. This seems practically a duty.16 Page viewed public relations as a broad-based management function that transcended both the journalistic publicity and persuasive communication campaign traditions. Under Page’s leadership, however, the company recognized that winning public confidence required not merely ad hoc attempts to answer criticism. Rather, a continuous and planned program of positive public relations using institutional advertising, the usual stream of information flowing through press releases, and other methods were needed. Bypassing the conventional print media, the company went directly to the public, establishing, for instance, a film program to be shown to schools and civic groups. AT&T sought to maintain direct contact with as many of its clients as possible. The company made a total commitment to customer service. Moreover, money was deposited into a number of different banks, legal business was given to attorneys throughout the country, and contracts for supplies and insurance were made with many local agencies. AT&T paid fees for employees to join outside organizations, knowing that through their presence the company would be constantly represented in many forums. Finally, the company sought to have as many people as possible own its stock. Today, AT&T and the successor companies that were created by divestiture in 1984 are the most widely held of all securities. What truly set Page apart and established him as a pioneer was his insistence that the publicity department act as an interpreter of the public to the company, drawing on a systematic and accurate diagnosis of public opinion. Page wanted data, not hunches. Under his direction, the AT&T publicity department (as it was still called) kept close check on company policies, assessing their impact on the public. Thus, Page caused the company “to act all the time from the public point of view, even when that seems in conflict with the operating point of view.”17 Page insisted that his staff practice six principles of public relations: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

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Tell the Truth. Let the public know what’s happening and provide an accurate picture of the company’s character, ideals, and practices. Prove It with Action. Public perception of an organization is determined 90 percent by doing and 10 percent by talking. Listen to the Customer. To serve the company well, understand what the public wants and needs. Keep top decision makers and other employees informed about company products, policies, and practices. Manage for Tomorrow. Anticipate public relations and eliminate practices that create difﬁculties. Generate goodwill. Conduct Public Relations as if the Whole Company Depends on It. Corporate relations is a management function. No corporate strategy should be implemented without considering its impact on the public. The public relations professional is a policymaker capable of handling a wide range of corporate communications activities. Remain Calm, Patient, and Good-Humored. Lay the groundwork for public relations miracles with consistent, calm, and reasoned attention to information and contacts. When a crisis arises, remember that cool heads communicate best.

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Public relations historian Karen Miller Russell believes that Page may come closest among early practitioners of representing the sense of the relationship-building and two-way communication tradition. This shows up, says Russell, in Page’s continual quest for government-industry accommodation. He led the effort with Columbia University social scientist Paul Lazarsfeld to conduct regularly scheduled research with customers, employees, and other key publics to assess AT&T’s standing among those groups. In turn, he used that feedback both to encourage organizational change and to ﬁne-tune messages regarding the company’s identity. (See spotlight 2.1 for a brief biographical sketch of leading public relations pioneers.)

The Depression and World War II Although corporate and agency public relations practice grew handily as part of the 1920s business boom, it was the Great Depression of the 1930s and the personal leadership of President Franklin Roosevelt that further transformed the practice. With help from public relations practitioners like Carl Byoir, Roosevelt built public support and changed public opinion toward his New Deal recovery programs with weekly radio broadcasts and numerous other techniques, including those described in mini-case 2.1 featuring counselor Carl Byoir. Roosevelt’s presidency was highlighted by both the Great Depression and World War II. In June 1942, with America fully engaged in worldwide war, the Ofﬁce of War Information (OWI) was established. Similar to Creel’s effort in World War I, a massive public relations effort was mounted to rally the home front. Elmer Davis directed the program. The goals of the OWI included selling war bonds; rationing food, clothing, and gasoline; planting victory gardens; and recruiting military personnel. Other issues promoted were factory productivity and efﬁciency.

Post–World War II The period following World War II represented a high point in professional growth and development of public relations practice. Many leading practitioners from the 1950s to the 1980s were among the nearly 75,000 Americans who had the “ultimate public relations internship,” learning public relations practice during wartime while working for the OWI. Several important communication agencies still active today trace their beginnings to the OWI. These include the Voice of America, the American Advertising Council, and the United States Information Agency, which sponsors scholarly and cultural exchanges. Many OWI veterans applied their wartime skills to initiate public information and public relations programs for government agencies, nonproﬁt organizations, schools, colleges, and hospitals. Moss Kendrix, a pioneer African American public relations practitioner, was one of those whose career path was launched while working with the Treasury Department promoting war bonds.18 And yet the hallmark of postwar public relations growth took place in the private sector, in corporations and agencies. A consumer economy made use of both public relations and advertising to market products. Agencies came into full being, providing media relations and media contact capabilities not always available on the corporate side. The need for these skills was driven in part by the explosive growth of media outlets not available before the war—including FM radio, general magazines, suburban community newspapers, and trade and professional association publications. Their services expanded from a base of counseling and media relations to include public affairs or government relations, ﬁnancial and investor relations, crisis communication, and media relations training for executives.

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Spotlight 2.1 P. T. Barnum. A consummate showman during the middle and late 1800s, Barnum originated many methods for attracting public attention. He didn’t let truth interfere with his publicity and press agentry techniques. Although he contributed positively to our understanding of the power of publicity, his lack of honesty led to a legacy of mistrust of publicity efforts that exists sometimes even today. George Michaelis. Organizer of the nation’s first publicity firm, the Publicity Bureau in Boston in 1900, Michaelis used fact-finding publicity and personal contact to saturate the nation’s press. Ivy Lee. Often called the father of modern public relations, Lee believed the public should be informed. He recognized that good words had to be supported by positive actions on the part of individuals and organizations. His emphasis on public relations as a management function put public relations on the right track with corporate America. George Creel. As head of the Committee on Public Information during World War I, Creel used public relations techniques to sell liberty bonds, build the Red Cross, and promote food conservation and other war-related activities. In so doing, he proved the power of public relations and trained a host of the 20th century’s most influential practitioners. Edward Bernays. An intellectual leader in the field, Bernays coined the phrase public relations counsel,

Public Relations Pioneers

wrote Crystallizing Public Opinion (the first book on public relations), and taught the first college-level public relations course at New York University in 1923. Bernays emphasized the social science contribution to public relations and was a leading advocate for public relations professionalism through practitioner licensing or credentialing. He remained an active counselor, writer, and speaker until his death in 1995 at age 103. Arthur Page. When offered a vice presidency at AT&T, Page insisted he have a voice in shaping corporate policy. He maintained that business in a democratic country depends on public permission and approval. John Hill. Along with Don Knowlton, John Hill opened a public relations agency in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1927. When John Hill moved to New York a few years later to open Hill & Knowlton, Knowlton was not part of the agency. The New York–based agency, though, continued to bear both their names. It became the largest public relations agency in the world and continues to rank in the top grouping. John Hill had major steel and tobacco accounts in his counseling career. His agency was sold to J. Walter Thompson in 1980 for $28 million. In 1987, it was sold to the Englishbased WPP Group for $85 million. Doris Fleischman Bernays. Doris Fleischman Bernays was Edward Bernays’s counselor partner from their marriage in 1922 until retire-

ment in 1952. She counseled corporations, government agencies, and presidents along with her husband. She struggled for equality, not with her husband, but with the attitudes of American business that often paid less attention to the advice given by a female public relations practitioner. Carl Byoir. Carl Byoir, like Edward Bernays, was another member of George Creel’s Committee on Public Information in World War I. After the war he founded Carl Byoir and Associates in 1930 to promote tourism to Cuba. He was known for his use of third-party endorsem*nts, use of newspaper advertising as a public relations tool, and development of lobbying in legislative battles for clients such as A&P, Libby-Owens-Ford, and Eastern Railroads. Rex Harlow. Harlow was a leading public relations educator. He began teaching a public relations course at Stanford in 1939 and may have been the first full-time professor of public relations. He also founded the American Council on Public Relations in 1939. The council eventually merged with the National Association of Public Relations Councils to form the Public Relations Society of America in 1947. Harlow founded the Public Relations Journal in 1944 and the Social Science Reporter in 1952. Moss Kendrix. Kendrix, an African American public relations pioneer, developed numerous public relations and advertising campaigns and messages for such clients as

On the organizational or client side, new services areas were added to complement the existing areas of publicity/media relations, employee publications, community relations, and audiovisual services. Chief among these was a new public affairs component to develop relationships with governmental ofﬁces in the legislative and executive branches of government. Initially, governmental affairs, or public affairs, built on community relations practices, but it soon came into its own, oftentimes as a result of new federal Great Society programs begun in the 1960s and 1970s. Civil rights, environmental, urban development, and similar programs all mandated citizen involvement or public participation assessments to determine how various stakeholders and established publics were affected by changes in land use, zoning, and community development activities. 36

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Coca-Cola, Carnation, Ford Motor Company, and the National Education Association. Born in 1917 in Atlanta and educated at Morehouse College, Kendrix was editor of his college newspaper and co-founder of Phi Delta Delta Journalism Society, the only African American journalism society for decades.19 Kendrix was drafted in World War II and served in the U.S. Army working for the War Finance Office. There he received his on-thejob public relations experience traveling throughout the country with African American celebrities promoting war bonds. In 1944, Moss Kendrix established his own public relations firm in Washington, D.C. His highly successful public relations work for the Republic of Liberia’s Centennial Celebration launched his future career in public relations working with major corporations and national nonprofit agencies such as the National Dental Association and NEA.20 In addition to his public relations consulting, Kendrix also hosted the weekly radio program Profiles of Our Times. He died in 1989. Denny Griswold. Griswold founded and served for almost 40 years as editor of Public Relations News, the first weekly newsletter devoted to public relations. Her professional experience included work for broadcasting networks, Forbes, BusinessWeek, and Bernays’s public relations firm. Her newsletter published thousands of case studies. She not only covered the profession, but she helped give it identity by honoring many of its leaders in her newsletter.21

Chester Burger. A “counselor to counselors” in public relations, was honored as the first life member of the Counselor’s Academy. He is renowned for his many public relations campaigns in civil rights and public diplomacy. His public relations career began, though, like many early public relations practitioners with work in the media. He joined CBS in 1941 as a page and left there in 1955 after he had risen to National Manager of CBS News. World War II interrupted his career with CBS. He served in the U.S. Army Air Force and produced the army’s first broadcasts. In 1946, he returned to CBS from the army and was the nation’s first television news reporter.22 Chester Burger & Co., his communications management consulting firm, included clients such as AT&T, Sears, American Bankers Association, American Cancer Society, Texas Instruments, and Occidental Petroleum Corporation. He is the author of six books on management. Patrick Jackson. Highly regarded public relations counselor Patrick Jackson served the profession with distinction for more than 30 years until his death in 2001. He published the trade newsletter pr reporter, where he reported on current research affecting public relations practice with an emphasis on applying communication and behavioral science research findings. He also served as president of the Public Relations Society of America. Harold Burson. A native of Memphis, Burson founded Burson-Marsteller Public Relations with Bill Marsteller, an advertising agency owner, in

1953. While the Marsteller ad agency owned 51 percent of the public relations agency, the public relations firm was a freestanding, separate company. The agency grew to become the world’s largest public relations agency by expanding both in the United States and to 35 countries around the world and remains at or near the top today. Burson believes behavioral change should be the goal of most public relations objectives. He remains on BursonMarsteller’s executive board as founding chair. Betsy Ann Plank. Plank began her 63-year public relations career in 1947. In 1952 she was the first person hired by Daniel Edelman when he began his agency in Chicago. She opened Edelman’s first European offices, but wasn’t content to sit on the sidelines and returned in 1965 to her native Alabama to march in the civil rights struggle. She moved from executive vice president of Edelman Worldwide to become the first woman in Illinois Bell to head a division within the corporation. She retired in 1990 but remained active until her death in 2010 with various public relations activities, but especially with her involvement in the Public Relations Student Society of America. She co-founded Champions for PRSSA, co-chaired the 1987 Commission on Public Relations Education, initiated the Certification in Education for Public Relations and established the Plank Center for Public Relations Leadership at the University of Alabama.

The new mandated citizen involvement and public participation programs exempliﬁed the growing relationship-building and two-way communication tradition. The two-way tradition involved building long-term relationships with publics and important stakeholders for organizations to recognize. Programs were geared not toward persuasion but rather toward mutual understanding, compromise, and creating win-win situations for organizations and their affected publics and stakeholders. In many respects this approach had already been adopted across regulated industries such as public utilities, cable television businesses, and others for which license renewals and rate increases were contingent on government approval. In turn, that approval was contingent on the licensee demonstrating community support by showing that the needs of various publics had been addressed in the renewal application. 37

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Mini Case 2.1 ●

Franklin Delano Roosevelt became ill with polio in 1921 while vacationing a few months after his defeat as vice president on the James Cox Democratic ticket of 1920. Roosevelt narrowly escaped death from the polio and fought the crippling effects of the disease for the rest of his life. In 1926, Roosevelt bought a rundown spa in Warm Springs, Georgia, from friend and philanthropist George Peabody. The spa—with 1,200 acres, a hotel, and cottages—was in poor shape, but the curative powers of the hot mineral springs held promise for many polio victims. When Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1928, he realized he wouldn’t have time to oversee the rehabilitation effort at Warm Springs, so he asked his law partner, Basil O’Conner, to lead the effort. O’Conner formed the Warm Springs Foundation to raise money for the refurbishing of the health resort, but the stock market crash in 1929 made fund-raising difficult. When Roosevelt became president in 1932, the foundation was nearly bankrupt. However, one of the foundation fund-raisers, Keith Morgan, hired a public relations counselor, Carl Byoir,

Carl Byoir and FDR

to do the job. Byoir had founded his own public relations agency in 1930 to promote tourism to Cuba. Byoir’s fundraising idea for the Warm Springs Foundation was to create a special event to raise the money. That event turned out to be birthday balls around the country to celebrate President Roosevelt’s birthday on January 30, 1934. Byoir sent letters to newspaper editors around the country asking them to nominate a birthday ball director for their area. If an editor didn’t respond, he went to either the Democratic Party chairman in the area or to the Roosevelt-appointed postmaster to ask them to do the ball. Media were besieged with information about the balls. National syndicated columnist and broadcaster Walter Winchell presented an appeal that was so good it would be used for years for both birthday balls and the March of Dimes. Radio personalities tried to outdo one another in promoting the balls. In the end 6,000 balls were held in 3,600 communities, and more than $1 million was raised for the foundation. The next two years the event was changed to split the proceeds, with 70 percent going to local communi-

ties and 30 percent to a newly created national polio research commission. Carl Byoir led the first three birthday balls. He then left because he had become disillusioned with President Roosevelt when FDR “packed” the Supreme Court in 1937. But out of Byoir’s effort came not only the birthday balls but also the March of Dimes, the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, and finally victory over polio. Carl Byoir had elevated fund-raising to a new level through his public relations efforts and had given new insight into techniques that public relations practitioners continue to use today. Questions 1. What have other not-for-profits done that build on this concept of a national special event? 2. Check out the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital Web site (www .stjude.org) to find out about its Thanks & Giving Program. How does it capitalize on a national audience to give to St. Jude?

Source: Scott M. Cutlip, The Unseen Power (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994), pp. 553–63.

Harold Burson Harold Burson personiﬁes this post–World War II growth of public relations. The co-founder of Burson-Marstellar Public Relations, one of the world’s largest and most respected agencies, Burson came from humble beginnings. He grew up in Memphis, Tennessee. His parents were immigrants. They couldn’t afford to put him through college, so he paid his way through Ole Miss by serving as a campus reporter for the Memphis Commercial Appeal. He served as an enlisted man in the combat engineers in World War II and later covered the Nuremberg trials for army radio network.23 In 1946 Burson began his own public relations agency. He soon became a leader in the postwar boom of public relations that saw a small discipline of less than 20,000 practitioners grow to a major career opportunity today, with more than 400,000 practitioners estimated by the U.S. Department of Labor. Burson joined with Bill Marsteller in 1953 to form Burson-Marsteller, which became the world’s largest public relations agency. It continues to be among the top three agencies in the world today. Burson was CEO for 35 years and managed the expansion of the agency into more than 35 countries. Crediting much of the success of the agency to hiring valuable people who often spent their entire careers with the agency, Burson says 38

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Chapter 2 • The History of Public Relations

that if he were to start again, he would pay even more attention to “recruiting, training, developing, motivating, and rewarding key employees.” He suggests that the success of his agency is primarily related to four key actions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Hiring a cadre of dedicated employees who worked for the firm for many years. Developing a family atmosphere with a team approach for the business. Creating a corporate culture proactively by seeding new offices with experienced Burson-Marsteller employees who hired and trained local people. Positioning the firm as a leader by being the first to use multimedia (including its own broadcast studio with satellite uplink and downlink), crisis simulation, health care practice, and personal computers.24

See video clip #5 on the Online Learning Center for the interview with Harold Burson.25

Moss Kendrix Moss Kendrix, an African American public relations pioneer, developed numerous public relations and advertising campaigns and messages for such clients as Coca-Cola, Carnation, Ford Motor Company, and the National Education Association. Kendrix was born in 1917 in Atlanta and educated at Morehouse College.26 Kendrix was drafted in World War II and served in the U.S. Army working for the War Finance Office, where he received his on-the-job public relations experience traveling throughout the country with African American celebrities promoting war bonds. In 1944, Moss Kendrix established his own public relations firm in Washington, D.C. He successfully did the public relations work for the Republic of Liberia’s Centennial Celebration, which launched his future career in public relations. In addition to his public relations consulting, Kendrix also hosted a weekly radio program called Profiles of Our Times. He died in 1989.

Fund-raising events, such as this WalkAmerica for March of Dimes, use public relations tools to make them successful events.

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Spotlight 2.2 Dr. Susan Gonders Southeast Missouri State University

Betsy Ann Plank (1924–2010) will always be “the first lady of public relations” because she achieved “firsts” that cannot be replicated. Her most enduring legacy, however, is to public relations education. “I believe a strong foundation in education is fundamental to a profession and defines it,” Betsy told PR Tactics in 2006. “We simply have to have strong educational underpinnings and all that infers— research, ethical disciplines and responsibility to society at large.” The munchkin-sized redhead began a jump ahead of her peers, graduating from high school at 16 and from the University of Alabama at 20. After a stint at NQV radio in Pittsburgh, she began her 63-year public relations career in 1947. She and her husband, industrial film producer Sherman Rosenfield (1923–1990), made Chicago their home. Betsy was one of the first to be hired when Daniel Edelman started his agency in 1952. She traveled to Paris to open Edelman’s first European offices, and she returned to her native Alabama in 1965 to join the final leg of the civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery. She became the only person to serve as president of four Chicago

First Lady of Public Relations

communication organizations: Publicity Club (1963), Welfare Public Relations Forum (1966–67), Chicago Chapter of PRSA (1969), and Public Relations Forum (1979). She was also past president of United Christian Community Services. She was communications chair of the Chicago United Way campaigns in 1972, 1978, and 1987. She was an Advisory Board member of Illinois Issues, the state’s public policy periodical. She chaired the Illinois Council on Economic Education and the Citizenship Council of Metropolitan Chicago, and she served on the boards of the United Way and the Girl Scouts. She was a founder and past chair (1980–81) of The Chicago Network, an organization of leading career women, and she received its First Decade Award in 1989. At Chicago’s 1984 Leader Luncheon, she was recognized as the area’s leading woman in communications, and the YWCA of Metropolitan Chicago named her 1992 Volunteer of the Year. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) was founded in 1947, the same year Betsy entered the profession. She participated in the movement to found the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA) during the 1967 National Conference in Philadelphia, and the first “Alpha” chapters were chartered in 1968. “It

Betsy Ann Plank

was an act of faith,” Betsy said, “and, in my case, the beginning of a lifetime love affair with students.” Chris Teahan was staff administrator for the first two decades of PRSSA, and he wrote “A Brief History of PRSSA” upon his retirement. Betsy spearheaded the writing of the history of the organization’s second two decades, authored by Susan Gonders and Barbara DeSanto. The year of 1973 marked major milestones. Betsy became the first female president of PRSA, she completed her 21-year agency career, where she rose to executive vice president of Edelman Worldwide, and she began her 17-year corporate career. She was the first woman to head a division of Illinois Bell, and she remained with Bell/AT&T/Ameritech through 1990, with executive positions in public relations planning and external affairs.

Professionalization of the Field More important, perhaps, were the concerted measures taken to establish public relations as a defined, respectable, and accepted field of professional practice. In fact, the 40 years from 1960 to 2000 are perhaps best characterized as the professionaldevelopment-building era in public relations. In 1947, Boston University established the first school of public relations. Two years later, 100 colleges and universities offered classes in the subject. Perhaps more than anything else, the 50-year period between the end of World War II and the Internet explosion was characterized by professionalizing the practice. Two major national professional associations were formed from mergers of smaller groups. The largest, the PRSA, began in 1948 and now maintains a membership of 20,000, including more than 110 local chapters as well as university student organizations under the name of the Public Relations Student Society of America (see spotlight 2.2). In 1954 the PRSA developed the first code of ethics for the profession. The society set up a grievance board for code enforcement in 1962, a program of voluntary accreditation in 1964, and a rewritten ethics code in 2000. 40

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When she was PRSA national president, she insisted that PRSSA students become self-governing. She told PR Tactics that “our students have proven to be of great judgment and leadership, and they’ve lived up to every expectation we’ve had of them.” As 1982–83 adviser to the PRSSA National Committee, she co-founded Friends of PRSSA (now Champions for PRSSA) to fund student awards competitions. She co-chaired the 1987 Commission on Public Relations Education, which developed guidelines for the undergraduate public relations curriculum. That led to the 1989 founding of Certification in Education for Public Relations (CEPR), a voluntary program of review that provides public relations programs of study worldwide with a stamp of approval from PRSA. She was a founding member of the PRSA College of Fellows, and she was the first person to receive all of PRSA’s top awards including: • Gold Anvil (1977) achievement. • Lund Award (1989) community service. • First recipient (2001) Jackson Award for service to PRSA. Other awards included:

and

for lifetime for civic and of the Patrick distinguished achievements

• First woman elected by readers of Public Relations News as Professional of the Year (1979).

• PR News named her one of the World’s 40 Outstanding Public Relations Leaders (1984). • PRSA Educators Academy honored her in 1997 with the first David W. Ferguson Award for contributions by a practitioner to public relations education. • The Arthur W. Page Society recognized her with the Distinguished Service Award in 2000. • She was the first Page Society Lifetime Achievement Award recipient in 2002. Betsy was an avid historian, and because Alexander Hamilton was her favorite founding father, she was pleased to be the first woman to receive the Hamilton Award (2000) from the Institute for Public Relations. “In my philosophy, public relations is fundamental to a democratic society where people make decisions in the workplace, marketplace, the community and the voting booth,” Plank said. “Its primary mission is to forge responsible relationships of understanding, trust and respect among groups and individuals—even when they disagree. Mr. Hamilton’s historic work continues to inspire and inform that difficult challenge today.” In 2005, she established the Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations at the University of Alabama. The center’s mission is to develop research, scholarships and forums that advance the ethical practice of public relations. She was one of the few non-educator

active members of the Public Relations Division (PRD) of the Association for Education in Journalism & Mass Communication (AEJMC), and she made a point of making sure that, by 2008, the Plank Center sponsored cash awards for the best student papers for PRD, PRSA, and other organizations. “This business has been very good to us—providing a challenging, exciting and rewarding career,” Betsy told PR Tactics. “Surely we owe something to its future. . . . We all need a new generation capable of performing.” The PRSA Foundation named the Betsy Plank Scholarship Endowment Fund in her honor in 2006, and the Foundation recognized her at its inaugural Paladin Award Dinner in 2009. Betsy had no siblings or biological children, but she adopted tens of thousands of “PRSSA children,” some of them now retired. All of the papers, memorabilia, and assets that filled her 5,000-square-foot condo, which overlooked Lake Michigan from the living room and Cubs stadium from the dining room, went to the Plank Center. From this bequest and from the impact she made in her lifetime, Betsy will continue to inspire generations of new public relations professionals. Source: Susan Gonders, professor of public relations, Southeast Missouri State University. Dr. Gonders, co-chair of PRSA Education Affairs Committee, is also coordinator for the certification program, CEPR, for PRSA.

In 1970 the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) was formed by the merger of the International Council of Industrial Editors and the Association of Industrial Editors. The IABC has been at the forefront in underwriting research studies, examining the current state and future of the public relations profession. Both PRSA and IABC now administer professional continuing education programs for their members and an accreditation program. Practitioners who pass both oral and written accreditation exams are deemed accredited and allowed to place the initials APR or ABC after their names on their business cards. PRSA uses APR (Accredited Public Relations); IABC uses ABC (Accredited Business Communicator). In addition to PRSA and IABC, today more than a dozen national public relations organizations are based in the United States, not to mention those whose membership is largely outside the United States. They’re listed here to indicate the range of professionally organized specialties within public relations: Religious Public Relations Council, founded in 1929. National School Public Relations Association, founded in 1935. 41

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Part I • The Profession

Public Relations Society of America, founded in 1948. Includes 21,000 members, not counting members of the affiliated Public Relations Student Society of America. Agricultural Relations Council, founded in 1953. International Public Relations Association, founded in 1955. National Society of Fund-Raising Executives, founded in 1960. National Investor Relations Institute, founded in 1969. International Association of Business Communicators, founded in 1970 and now with 13,000 members. Council for the Advancement and Support of Education (CASE), founded in 1975. National Association of Government Communicators, founded in 1976. Issue Management Council, founded in 1982. The Arthur Page Society, founded in 1983. Society of Healthcare Strategy and Marketing Development, founded in 1996 and subsuming previous hospital and health care public relations associations. Association of Counseling Firms, founded in 1999. Professional and specialized public relations organizations also started professional magazines and newsletters, such as the Public Relations Journal and Communication World, which were followed by other private newsletters and trade magazines, such as the Ragan Report, PR News, PR Tactics, PR Week, pr reporter, and Public Relations Quarterly. Taken together, these professional publications form a distinctive literature aimed at those practitioners. Public relations texts were published once college-level courses were offered, first as a concentration within the journalism or mass communication major and later within speech communication or integrated communication. Then came the academic journals, where university professors published research findings or developed new theoretical traditions to explain the practice of public relations. The principal journals were Public Relations Review, Public Relations Research and Education, Public Relations Research Annual, and the Journal of Public Relations Research. A public relations literature or body of knowledge was developing separately from related fields such as advertising, journalism, public opinion, and interpersonal communication. Those conceptual underpinnings were grounded in theory and are outlined chronologically in spotlight 2.3. Taken together, these new professional magazines, texts, and research publications all reinforced the growing consensus that public relations work could be organized in terms of a four-step process—research, planning, communication and action (implementation), and evaluation. As time went on, the field gained even more respect as program plans expanded to include measurable objectives and follow-up evaluation measures to assess the impact, the cost, and ways to improve future campaigns and programs.

New Stakeholder Groups In the late 1960s and the 1970s, democratically inspired social movements used effective public relations techniques to oppose business interests. With little money or staff, environmental group members, for example, became proﬁcient at staging tree huggings, roadblocks, and other events whose conﬂict themes were almost guaranteed to generate television footage. They effectively used not only alternative and specialized media but also journalistic conventions, sometimes at the expense of losing their hard edge, according to sociologists Todd Gitlin and Charlotte Ryan.27

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Conceptual Traditions in Public Relations 1920s: Systematic understanding of the importance and nature of public opinion emerged not only in terms of polling and scientific measurement but also as a social organizing process around issues. 1950s: Persuasion and social influence principles, and especially those set forth with the Yale Communication Program, provided the strategies for establishing, maintaining, and changing opinions and attitudes. 1960s: The diffusion of innovations research tradition served as a conceptual framework for public relations practitioners, health communicators, and Peace Corps officials on how to combine interpersonal and media communication to change behaviors. Most recently, the diffusion framework has been used to illustrate the use of marketing communication elements, including publicity, advertising, sales promotion, and direct selling. 1970s: Situational theory of publics was put forth. While public relations practitioners use a range of

Spotlight 2.3 audience segmentation techniques, J. Grunig’s situational theory explains which publics will become most active regarding specific issues. Relational communication, with its roots in interpersonal communication, set forth by Rogers and Millar, accounts for conditions prompting and inhibiting relational development. 1960s –1990s: Social psychological foundations underpinning public relations practice flourished alongside specific public relations theories. Many of these theories are used to study cognitive or knowledge change and information processing in public relations and health communication. These include attitude/action consistency, expectancy value theory, co-orientation, theory of reasoned action, framing theory, social cognitive theory, and game theory. 1970s–2000: Normative influences on the practice of public relations have underpinned important research on practitioner roles, feminization

of the field, and other genderrelated effects. 1980s–2000: J. Grunig’s four models of public relations based on oneway/two-way and balanced/ unbalanced communication have prompted the greatest amount of recent research and theory development in public relations. Social and organizational structural influences on the growth and nature of public relations work, including research on public relations in different industry categories, structurally determined cross-cultural impacts on the practice, and encroachment on the public relations functions by related areas, became evident. 1990s–2010: Critical theory approaches emerged. Scholars in this tradition believe that the practice and study of public relations from a business and organizational standpoint mask power differences in society and ignore nonmainstream groups, including social movements and third-party candidates.

Societal concerns during the late 1960s and 1970s prompted businesses and their public relations agencies to place new emphasis on governmental and community relations, issue tracking, issue management, and strategic planning. This was especially the case with regulated businesses, such as utilities and telecommunication ﬁrms whose rate structures, franchises, and licensing requirements placed a premium on effective relationship building among key constituencies.

Another distinct phase in public relations history emerged THE GLOBAL around 1990 and was characterized by (1) the use of the INFORMATION Internet and other new communication technologies and (2) the growth of public relations agencies, which occurred oftentimes either by merging with larger public relations agencies or advertising agencies or by forming alliances with other ﬁrms in regional cities. The 1990s were also characterized by the growth of specialty practices in public relations. Investor relations, though begun 20 years earlier, came into its own as technology companies sought venture capital, became stock-held corporations through initial public offerings, and later merged with other public corporations. Thus, keeping stockholders informed and attracting new investors became a central, rather than peripheral, public relations function.

SOCIETY

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Part I • The Profession

By 1990 leading firms had aligned their corporate giving with ongoing community relations programs. As well, their global reach throughout the 1990s led to more focus on corporate social responsibility in general rather than corporate giving in a narrow sense. Issues management and environmental scanning functions became more systematic, owing to computer databases and tracking systems in which organizations could join chat groups, listservs, and blogs. The opening of new markets on a global scale led to systems of global strategic design with local implementation and a noticeably heavier emphasis given to intercultural issues or differences in the ways companies could offer themselves and their products in different cultures and regions of the world. At home, a much greater degree of specialization began occurring at agencies as they sought to develop more subject matter competence in key industrial niches, including technology, health care, financial and investor institutions, and international practice. Another milestone was reached when it became known that more and more public relations practitioners were seeking master’s degrees either to become more specialized within the field of public relations or as a way of taking on more general management responsibilities. The 1990s was a time of explosive growth for public relations and corporate communication stemming in large part from (1) growth and use of the Internet, (2) global communication demands, and (3) proliferating communication channels.

The Internet to Social Media The Internet changed the nature of public relations work. To put the impact of the Internet in perspective, those who study media adoption note that radio took 30 years to reach an audience of 50 million, and TV took 13 years; by contrast—the Internet took just four years. By 2000, e-mail had become the preferred medium for reaching reporters with whom an organization had already developed relationships.28 But by 2010 social media through the Internet have provided another major change for the public relations practitioner. Before the Internet, the thrust of media relations work was “pushing” information from the organization to the desks of media reports, producers, and editors via news releases, news tips, and press kits. That all changed because the Web gives the reporter the opportunity to pull and parse needed company information from the Web site and all of its links without ever going through the public relations or media relations office. The Internet is a very different and more powerful media relations tool than almost any other tool used in the preceding 50 years.29 The more recent use of social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube has provided another tool for public relations practitioners. Although it has become commonplace for reporters to check Web sites while writing their stories, they now often depend on social media like Facebook to solicit quotes and additional information. Twitter is often the tool for breaking spot news to the media, and YouTube can be used to post video stories or interviews for use by the media. Search engines like Google have also revolutionized the way journalists and public relations practitioners gather information. Likewise, blogs of a given subject give readers a pulse on current issues. They, too, like Facebook, can be used to gather quotes for stories. Journalists and public relations practitioners are not the only ones reaping the benefits of the Internet and social media. Fund-raising groups, nonprofit organizations, and political /social movements all use these new and relatively “free” technologies to meet

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Chapter 2 • The History of Public Relations

their needs, allowing them to operate more competitively within their limited budgets. See chapter 9 for more about the use of social media in media relations.

Global Communication Demands Just as Internet Web sites and e-mail functions have reshaped public relations practice, so too has the creation of new consumer and ﬁnancial markets around the world. Competition for worldwide markets speeds product introduction times. As a result, trade magazine editors and ﬁnancial reports clamor for updated information almost by the hour. Gone, then, are the days when publicity releases could be planned and scheduled weeks and months in advance. The new worldwide public relations environment means working simultaneously with the media across various cultures, nations, and regions. Under these conditions, public relations practitioners are forced to be better versed in intercultural communication practices and to understand differences in the ways media reporters and editors are approached or contacted in different cultures. In Japan, for example, contact with the media is made through “press clubs” maintained separately by each industry or at government press rooms maintained by each government minister. Press club secretaries decide whether to issue press releases, call press conferences, or do nothing. The press club seal of endorsem*nt— especially regarding press conferences—markedly increases newspaper coverage.

Proliferating Communication Channels The proliferation of media channels— especially cable channels and new magazine titles— continues in response to individual and media desires for more specialized information tailored to the various reading and viewing interests of investors, customers, employees, donors, and so on. For public relations practitioners this means matching the qualities of traditional and online media to the information needs of their target audiences. Ray Kotcher, senior partner and CEO of Ketchum, explains how channel proliferation affects media relations work: “At the moment we are being asked to deal on a more strategic level (make this a new development) because of this incredible momentum in the media, messaging, and information that’s out there. Think about it. We only had one NBC network 15 years ago. Now we have CNBC, MSNBC, and I don’t know how many NBC’s online.”30

Wreck on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 1906 By Craig E. Aronoff Kennesaw State College

Case Study

evere railroad regulations passed in 1903 and 1906 caused Alexander J. Cassatt, president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, to seek the counsel of Ivy Ledbetter Lee concerning how to deal better with the press and the public. Lee went right to work. He believed in absolute frankness with the press. Veteran railroad men were distressed at Lee’s behavior. They were convinced that revealing facts about accidents would frighten customers.

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Part I • The Profession

A golden opportunity for Lee to put his ideas into practice soon arose. A train wrecked on the Pennsylvania Railroad main line near the town of Gap, Pennsylvania. As was its time-honored practice, the company sought to suppress all news of the accident. When Ivy Lee learned of the situation, he took control. He contacted reporters, inviting them to come to the accident scene at company expense. He provided facilities to help them in their work. He gave out information for which the journalists had not asked. The railroad’s executives were appalled at Lee’s actions. His policies were seen as unnecessary and destructive. How could the propagation of such bad news do anything but harm the railroad’s freight and passenger business? At about the time of the wreck on the Pennsylvania, another train accident struck the rival New York Central. Sticking with its traditional policy, the Central sought to avoid the press and restrict information flow concerning the situation. Confronted with the Central’s behavior, and having tasted Lee’s approach to public relations, the press was furious with the New York line. Columns and editorials poured forth chastising the Central and praising the Pennsylvania. Lee’s efforts resulted in positive publicity, increased credibility, comparative advantages over the Central, and good, constructive press coverage and relations. Lee’s critics were silenced. Earl Newsom, himself a public relations giant, looked back at this accident nearly 60 years later and said: This whole activity of which you and I are a part can probably be said to have its beginning when Ivy Lee persuaded the directors of the Pennsylvania Railroad that the press should be given all the facts on all railway accidents—even though the facts might place the blame on the railroad itself.*

When Ivy Lee died in 1934, among the many dignitaries at his funeral were the presidents of both the Pennsylvania and the New York Central railroads.

Sources: Material for this case was gathered from Ray Hiebert’s Courtier to the Crowd (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1966), pp. 55–61; Eric Goldman’s Two-Way Street (Boston: Bellman Publishing, 1948), p. 8. *Earl Newsom, “Business Does Not Function by Divine Right,” Public Relations Journal (January 1963), p. 4.

Questions 1. Were Lee’s actions in response to the railroad accident consistent with practice today? Explain. 2. Had the New York Central accident not occurred, what do you think would have happened to Ivy Lee and his relationship with the Pennsylvania Railroad? Do you think the course of public relations development would have been affected? 3. In certain totalitarian states, news of accidents and disasters is often largely suppressed. What do you consider their reasons to be for retaining a posture given up by American public relations practice more than 80 years ago?

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Chapter 2 • The History of Public Relations

The scope of public relations work today is clearly nothing like it was in early times or even during the jump-start period following World War I. Even so, the pattern of development can be seen in the four orienting traditions: the rhetorician and press agent tradition, the journalistic publicity tradition, the persuasive communication campaign tradition, and, ﬁnally, a relationship-building and two-way communication tradition. We close with a quote from veteran public relations educator and historian Scott M. Cutlip who wrote in The Unseen Power, “The essentiality of public relations as a management function that Ivy Lee envisaged in the early 1900s becomes clearer each passing day as our global society becomes even more dependent on effective communication and on an interdependent, competitive world.”31

Summary

online press agents propaganda of the deed

1. Helio Fred Garcia, “Really-Old-School Public Relations,” Public Relations Strategist (Summer 1998), p. 18. 2. Ibid., pp. 16–18. 3. Philip Davidson, Propaganda and the American Revolution, 1763–1783 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), p. 3. 4. Allan Nevins, The Constitution Makers and the Public, 1785–1790 (New York: Foundation for Public Relations Research and Education, 1962), p. 10. 5. Richard Overton, Burlington West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941), pp. 158–59. 6. Merle Curti, The Growth of American Thought, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), p. 634. 7. Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft (New York: Knopf, 1953), p. 168. 8. Eric F. Goldman, Two-Way Street (Boston: Bellman Publishing, 1948), p. 21. 9. Quoted in Sherman Morse, “An Awakening on Wall Street,” American Magazine 62 (September 1906), p. 460. 10. Ray E. Hiebert, Courtier to the Crowd: The Story of Ivy Lee and the Development of Public Relations (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1966), p. 57. 11. Ibid., p. 65. 12. Karen S. Miller, “U.S. Public Relations History: Knowledge and Limitations,”

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rhetoricians stakeholders

Communication Yearbook 23 (2000), pp. 381–420. 13. Harold D. Lasswell, Propaganda Techniques in the World War (New York: Knopf, 1927), p. 220.

For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

Key Terms Notes

14. Margaret E. Duffy, “There’s No TwoWay Symmetric About It: A Postmodern Examination of Public Relations Textbooks,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 17, no. 3 (September 2000), pp. 294–313. 15. Stuart Ewan, A Social History of Spin (New York: Basic Books, 1996), p. 34. 16. George Griswold Jr., “How AT&T Public Relations Policies Developed,” Public Relations Quarterly 12 (Fall 1967), p. 13. 17. Allan R. Raucher, Public Relations and Business, 1900–1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968), pp. 80–81. 18. “Moss Kendrix: A Retrospective,” The Museum of Public Relations, retrieved from www.prmuseum.com/kendrix/life .html on March 3, 2008. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21. “In Memoriam: Denny Griswold,” PRSA, retrieved from www.prsa .org on Sept. 23, 2005; “Arthur W. Page Society Will Honor Two Public Relations Legends,” retrieved from www .awpagesociety.com on Sept. 25, 2005.

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Part I • The Profession 22. “Chester Burger,” The Museum of Public Relations, March 2000, retrieved from www.prmuseum.com/burger/chet1.html on March 3, 2008. 23. Harold Burson, E Pluribus Unum: The Making of Burson-Marsteller (New York: Burson-Marsteller, 2002). 24. Ibid., p. 161. 25. Dan Lattimore, video interview with Harold Burson, Memphis, TN, 2002. 26. “Moss Kendrix: A Retrospective.” 27. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Charlotte Ryan, Media Strategies for Grassroots Organizing (Boston: South End Press, 1991).

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28. Don Middleberg and Steven Ross, “The Middleberg/Ross Media Survey: Change and Its Impact on Communication,” Eighth Annual National Survey, 2002. 29. Carole Howard, “Technologies and Tabloids: How the New Media World Is Changing Our Jobs,” Public Relations Quarterly 45 (Spring 2000), p. 9. 30. Ray Kotcher, “Roundtable: Future Perfect? Agency Leaders Reflect on the 1990s and Beyond,” Public Relations Strategist 8 (Summer 2001), p. 11. 31. Scott M. Cutlip, The Unseen Power (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994), p. 761.

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H A A P T E R CC H

A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations OUTLINE PREVIEW THEORY DEFINED THEORIES OF RELATIONSHIPS Systems Theory Situational Theory THEORIES OF PERSUASION AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE Social Exchange Theory Diffusion Theory Social Learning Theory THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION Uses and Gratifications Theory Framing Theory Agenda Setting Theory PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLES MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS APPROACHES TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES

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PREVIEW

hy have a chapter on theory in a beginning public relations principles textbook? Whereas most textbooks describe public relations—its history, its practices, and its

processes—we believe that it is also important to provide some perspective about why and how public relations is practiced as it is. More important, theory explains how to make public relations most effective for organizations and society. Theories predict the way things work or happen. They provide an understanding of the relationship between actions and events. As a public relations practitioner, you will need to be able to explain why and how your plans and proposals will work. Your supervisor and your coworkers will be more convinced to support your opinions if you have theories and evidence to back them up. There is no one theory that will explain all public relations practices. Public relations practitioners consider several theories when they make decisions about how they can build successful relationships with their publics. This chapter introduces six types of theories that public relations practitioners use every day: relationship theory, persuasion and social influence, mass communication, roles, models, and approaches to conflict resolution.

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Part I • The Profession

What would happen if we used Facebook to reach our volunteers? Why did our audience agree to donate money? How will investors learn about our stocks? How can we be sure that our position will be picked up by the media? Questions like these should sound familiar to anyone working in public relations. Public relations practitioners evaluate why a plan worked or didn’t work so that they can adjust their strategies for future efforts. Some of the questions we ask as practitioners are routine, and some are not so routine. When someone knows answers to routine questions, we say that person has common sense. When someone can correctly answer the nonroutine, we say that person is astute or experienced. But to answer either type of question, a person needs to understand the relationships between actions and events. A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are related. For example, pr reporter described as a failure a federally funded message campaign to frighten kids off drugs.1 Research showed that kids who reported seeing the ads were using marijuana even more than those who had not seen the ads. What caused this waste of $180 million a year? One expert said, “Scaring kids doesn’t work. When people try pot for the first time, they wonder what the big deal is. Then, they don’t believe the other stuff. The ads are not realistic.”2 This opinion reflects a great deal of theory on the use of fear appeals. Fear appeals theory predicts that there will be little change with an overreliance on fear appeals that threaten physical harm. More persuasive are balanced arguments with incentives for changing behavior.3 We call this prediction a theory. We have theories about many actions and events in public relations. Some theories serve us well because we test them regularly and observe the same relationships over time. For example, thank-you notes to express appreciation will almost always lead to an improved relationship between an organization and its customers, clients, employees, and other stakeholders. Other theories are dynamic and evolving and need more testing and refinement so that they will have better predictive value. As a public relations manager, you should have knowledge of different theories so that you can make the right decisions for your public relations plans and programs. Your value to your employer or client will be directly related to how well you use theory in your work. Read some of former PRSA president Pat Jackson’s lasting theories for public relations in spotlight 3.1. No single theory covers all you need to know in public relations or any other discipline; therefore, it is valuable to look at theories by grouping them according to how they are used. We start with theories of relationships. Then, we discuss theories of persuasion and social influence; that is, theories about how people take in information and what moves them to act. Next, we consider theories of mass communication. Finally, we look at ways to describe what public relations people do and how organizations approach public relations.

THEORY DEFINED

THEORIES OF RELATIONSHIPS

Both systems theory and situational theory are considered theories of relationships. We look at each theory here.

Systems Theory Systems theory is useful in public relations because it gives us a way to think about relationships. Generally, systems theory looks at organizations as made up of interrelated parts, adapting and adjusting to changes in the political, economic, and social environments in which they operate. Organizations have recognizable boundaries, within which

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Pat Jackson’s Lasting Contribution to Public Relations • Any profession exists by public consent only. Public relations provides an overriding social benefit when people have a voice. • Harmony is an outcome of public relations practiced over a long time. • Harmonious relationships, not just relations, fortified with trust require co-authorship. • Remind managers that their communication role is to transmit not only information but also emotions and intuition.

Spotlight 3.1

• The most important effect is to change behavior. • The public relations practitioner’s chief role is to serve as a catalyst. • The triggering event is an activity that motivates stakeholders to act on their latent readiness.

Sources: From pr reporter, April 2, 2001, pp. 1–2; Allen H. Center, Patrick Jackson, Stacey Smith, and Fran R. Stansberry, Public Relations Practices, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson), p. 15.

Pat Jackson

there must be a communication structure that guides the parts of the organization to achieve organizational goals. The leaders of the organization create and maintain these internal structures. Media Government Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier state that the systems perspective emphasizes the interdependence of organizations with their environments, both internal and external to the organization.4 According to the systems perspective, organizations depend on resources from their environments, United PRworks such as “raw materials, a source of employees, and clients or customers for the services or products they produce. The environment needs the organization for its products Financial Neighbors and services.”5 Organizations with open systems use pubInstitutions lic relations people to bring back information on how productive their relationships are with clients, customers, and Customers other stakeholders. Organizations with closed systems do not seek new information. The decision makers operate on what happened in the past or on their personal preferences. Environment Organizations are part of a greater environment made up of many systems. We use as an example a hypothetical FIGURE 3.1 Systems Model of an Organization and Its Environment organization—United PRworks. It is depicted as an oval in the center of figure 3.1. Moving out from the organization, you can see that it has an environment—the area between the large circle and our organization. In that environment we see most of the groups we considered in chapter 1— customers, media, community, financial institutions, and government. These groups are called stakeholders because “they and the organization have consequences on each other”6 —they create problems and opportunities for one another. We can use systems theory not only to examine relationships with our external stakeholders but also to look at the internal functions and stakeholders of our organizations. Organizations structure their employees by specific jobs and functions. Many different departments, such as accounting, legal, and public relations, make up the managerial function. The production function of an organization might include skilled and unskilled employees who actually make the product or provide the service to customers. 53

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Part I • The Profession

The marketing function is made up of sales staff. All of these different employees are interdependent. Consider this real-world example of systems thinking by a corporate social responsibility director at Merck & Co., Inc., a worldwide pharmaceutical company. Merck helps fight AIDS by creating stakeholder partnerships: Merck corporate directors, the government of Botswana, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. This requires constant communication and problem solving. To prepare for a presentation at an international AIDS conference in Bangkok, Maggie Kohn described her efforts to bridge effectively many different internal and external systems: “I had weekly meetings with the two Merck representatives, daily communication with the Botswana communication director, and bimonthly calls with Gates Foundation communicators.”7 The monitoring of relationships is a major one for public relations people. Through systems theory, we think of public relations people as boundary spanners, straddling the edge of an organization—looking inside and outside of an organization. Public relations practitioners are the go-betweens, explaining the organization to its stakeholders and interpreting the environment to the organization. Public relations people advise the dominant coalition,8 the primary decision makers of the organization, about problems and opportunities in the environment and help these decision makers respond to these changes. The environment imposes constraints on organizations. For example, customers can boycott an organization’s products. The courts can make a business pay damages to people who are injured by its products. Banks can choose not to lend money to an organization. Because we use systems theory, we can identify an organization’s stakeholders, and by spanning organizational boundaries, we can anticipate each side’s relationship needs. If decision makers keep their systems open, they allow for the two-way flow of resources and information between the organization and its environment. They use that information for adapting to the environment, or they may use the incoming information to try to control the environment. For example, to control potentially negative media stories, a Nike corporate communicator created the “Issues Brief ” to be used when media questioned Nike products. The Issues Brief gave Nike spokespersons information to explain company policies or positions. “For example, if a top athlete were in the middle of a marathon and a Nike running shoe fell apart, we have a one-page document that provides in a very concise fashion the history of that product or issue, approved legal statements and language that can be used when discussing the issues, and a list of the most-likely questions that the media or other external stakeholders will ask.”9 Using the concepts of organizations and environments we can begin to create theoretical statements about relationships with stakeholders. For example, we might say: The more turbulent the environment, the more flexible the public relations department needs to be because the stakeholders that could have positive or negative consequences for the organization are constantly changing. Organizations that remain slow to respond, such as the U.S Post Office, or closed to new information from the environment are less likely to build effective relationships with key publics. If organizations have closed systems, it may take a crisis for an organization to accept environmental changes.

Situational Theory Grunig and Repper agreed that it was a good start to use the concept of stakeholders as a way of describing relationships.10 However, they concluded that not all people in stakeholder groups would be equally likely to communicate with an organization. They felt that public relations people could more effectively manage communications by identifying speciﬁc publics within stakeholder groups (see spotlight 3.2). These publics were subgroups that

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James E. Grunig James E. Grunig, PhD, Professor Emeritus, University of Maryland, contributed a landmark theory focused on public relations as a strategic management function of organizations. Based on the Excellence study, he helped explain how public relations contributes to building valuable relationships between organizations and their publics in order to achieve organizational goals. His work helped explain how public relations professionals participate in the strategic decision-making processes of organizations. Grunig and other scholars

Spotlight 3.2 have explained the strategic role of public relations in environmental scanning and publics, scenario building, empowerment of public relations, ethics, relationship cultivation strategies, evaluation, and return on investment (ROI). Source: Excerpted from James E. Grunig, “Furnishing the Ediface: Ongoing Research on Public Relations as a Strategic Management Function,” Journal of Public Relations Research 18, pp. 151–76.

James E. Grunig

were more or less active in their communication behavior. An example of a stakeholder public would be active voters within the broader group of all registered voters. Candidates for political office focus their communication efforts on those voters who can be counted on to go to polls on election day. Grunig and Hunt proposed what they call a situational theory of publics to give us more specific information about publics’ communication needs.11 Grunig and Hunt theorized that publics range from those who actively seek and process information about an organization or an issue of interest, to those publics who passively receive information. According to these researchers, three variables predict when publics will seek and process information about an issue: problem recognition, constraint recognition, and level of involvement. The key is that publics are situational. That is, as the situation, problem, opportunity, or issue changes, the publics, with which the organization must communicate, change. Problem Recognition Publics facing an issue must first be aware of it and recognize its potential to affect them. For example, parents of school-age children will be more aware of subpar school facilities than will taxpayers without children. Constraint Recognition This variable describes how publics perceive obstacles that may stand in the way of a solution. If they believe they have a real shot at influencing an issue, they will tend to seek and process information on that issue. Think again about parents with school-age children. They have more access to school decision makers because they have more contact with school principals, teachers, and administrators than do taxpayers without children. Level of Involvement This variable refers to how much an individual cares about an issue. Those who care a lot would likely be active communicators on an issue. Those who care little would likely be more passive in seeking and processing information. We anticipate that the level of involvement would be much higher for those parents who saw firsthand substandard school facilities than those who had not. Using these three variables, Grunig and Hunt described four responses that follow from being high or low in these dimensions. For example, those publics who have high problem recognition, low constraint recognition, and high involvement in an issue are much more likely to actively engage in communication about it. 55

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Part I • The Profession

Situational theory also helps explain why some groups are active on a single issue, others are active on many issues, and others are uniformly apathetic. The specific relationship is determined by the type of group (active, passive) and how an organization is linked with the issue. Public relations people can plan their communication strategies much more accurately if they know how actively their stakeholder publics will seek information from the organization. Situational theory keeps us focused on the kinds of information that publics want rather than the organization’s choice of information to distribute. It also assumes that publics will pay attention and seek out information that is in their best interests. Public relations people try to persuade audiences to learn new information, to change emotions, and to act in certain ways. Pfau and Wan define persuasion as “the use of communication in an attempt to shape, change, and/or reinforce perception, affect (feelings), cognition (thinking) and/or behavior.”12 As Miller and Levine stated, “At a minimum a successful persuasive attempt generates some type of cognitive, affective, or behavioral modification in the target.”13 We use the following terms to talk about persuasion:

THEORIES OF PERSUASION AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Awareness: accepting information for the first time Attitudes: predispositions to like or dislike things Beliefs: assessments that things are true or false Behavior: observable actions14 Sometimes we are not even aware that we are being persuaded. Consider a common activity, like going to the bank. When you enter the bank, there are tent cards and brochures explaining how to open an account and new services that the bank says will save you money. Free coffee and popcorn are available. With each of these subtle “touches” the bank’s public relations people are seeking to change your awareness, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. Several factors will influence how persuasive public relations messages or actions will be. Among them are the source of the message, the message itself, and the receiver. Not surprisingly, researchers have found that the more credible or believable the source is, the more likely we will accept the message. Studies of effective messages consider such characteristics as language intensity, message-sidedness, and the quality and quantity of the evidence.15 Gender, personality traits, and the argumentativeness of the receiver will also influence the impact of persuasive messages.16 (See mini-case 3.1 for another example of these terms in use.) We will discuss four theories of persuasive and social influences: social exchange, diffusion, social learning, and elaborated likelihood model.

Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory uses the economic metaphor of costs and beneﬁts to predict behavior. It assumes that individuals and groups choose strategies based on perceived rewards and costs. This theory, developed by John Thibaut and Harold Kelley, applies to many ﬁelds of study, including interpersonal communication, public relations, and theories of organizations.17 Social exchange theory asserts that people factor in the consequences of their behavior before acting. In general, people want to keep their costs low and their rewards high. Get-rich-quick schemes have been using this principle for a long time.

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DaimlerChrysler: Road Ready Teens Teenagers aged 16 to 19 are far more likely to be killed in a car crash than any other group. This is primarily due to driver inexperience, or lack of maturity behind the wheel. Research shows that when teens are eased into driving and when parents take an active role in their teens’ driver education by setting driving guidelines, their teens’ chances of being in a car crash can be reduced by up to one-third. DaimlerChrysler sought to reinforce its position as a safety leader with con-

Mini Case 3.1

● Basis for Public Relations Chapter 3 • A Theoretical

Questions 1. DaimlerChrysler wanted what kinds of persuasive effects for this campaign: awareness, attitude, belief, or behavior change? 2. How did this campaign consider the source, the message, and the receiver to create its effects?

sumers by raising awareness among teens and their parents about the risks teens face as new drivers and by providing them with tools and tactics to survive the high-risk years. To this end, DaimlerChrysler made available free and on the Internet (www.roadreadyteens.org in English and Spanish) a video game called StreetWise. Results showed that more than 1.8 million games of StreetWise were played, with game play averaging 19 minutes per player.

Source: DaimlerChrysler, Road Ready Teens, accessed March 27, 2008, http://69.20.125.164/dbtw-wpd/exec/ dbtwpub.dll.

But what does this have to do with public relations? Let’s say we want people to respond to a survey. Remember, we want to keep costs to potential respondents low and perceived rewards high. What can we do to keep costs low? ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Keep the instructions simple. Keep the survey short. If mailing is required, provide a prepaid return envelope. If returning by fax, use an 800 number. Avoid open-ended, complex, and personal questions. Now, how can we increase the rewards for the respondent?

■ ■

■

Make the survey interesting. Emphasize that the person is being “consulted” for his or her thoughts and that her or his ideas are important. Tell respondents how the results will be used— presumably to contribute to something worthwhile. Customers Offer an opportunity for a tangible reward, for Find Out Don’t Find Out Rewards: N/A example, a copy of the results or a chance to win • co. associated something of value. with quality

This same logic can be applied to more complex behavior by using a payoff matrix. Let’s say our company, United PRworks, becomes aware of defects in a product that has already been shipped to customers. The defect may mean that the product will need repairs much sooner than a promised three-year guarantee. We can look at this situation as a set of possible decisions, with each decision having costs and rewards. In ﬁgure 3.2, the upper part of each cell contains perceived rewards, and the lower part, possible costs. Some of the consequences, like recall costs, are certain. Others, like the possibility of lawsuits and negative publicity, have some probability associated with them. If the head of United PRworks could see the decision this way, the company would recall the products

Recall Screws

Costs:

• possible positive publicity N/A

• money • possible neg. publicity

United PRworks

Ignore

Rewards:

Costs: • lose goodwill • neg. publicity • lawsuits • lose customers

Rewards: • no immediate costs • no negative publicity • save costs Costs: of retail

FIGURE 3.2 Payoff Matrix Showing Costs and Rewards Involved in a Recall Decision

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Part I • The Profession

and accept the short-term loss. The trouble is that human nature can blind us to the information in the cells associated with customers ﬁnding out about the defect. It would be human nature to ignore the problem, hoping it would go away. The public relations practitioner’s job is to let the decision maker see a whole range of options along with the associated costs and rewards.

Diffusion Theory Diffusion theory is another way to look at how people process and accept information. Diffusion theory says that people adopt an idea only after going through the following ﬁve discrete steps (or stages): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Awareness. The individual has been exposed to the idea. Interest. The idea has to arouse the individual. Evaluation. The individual must consider the idea as potentially useful. Trial. The individual tries out the idea on others. Adoption. This represents ﬁnal acceptance of the idea after having successfully passed through the four earlier stages.18

This theory is useful for explaining how we reach important decisions—not acts of impulse. We know from testing this model that mass media are important in the first two stages; personal contacts are important for the next two. Let’s take an example. United PRworks’s annual family picnic is two weeks away. You are selling tickets at $1 per family as a way to plan how much food to order. You tell the boss at the morning staff meeting that ticket sales have been slow. If your boss is typical, she or he will say, “Make sure every employee gets a flyer.” Sending out more flyers virtually guarantees awareness, but you are still four steps away from getting people to decide to go (adoption). By knowing how people accept and process information, you plan systematically to move the employees through the remaining stages. The next step is to arouse interest in attending the picnic by sending individual invitations that tell employees how their families will enjoy the event. How about entertainment for the old and young? A special “snack” table for the kids, games and door prizes for adults and kids. Then, have your picnic organizers asked employees for their evaluations for how to make the event mesh with their interests. Free parking? Baby-sitting service? Get some “buzz” going by having the CEO talk about the picnic with employees. Finally, you will need lots of people at the shop level to talk about the picnic to their fellow workers. Then, they need to go sell the tickets.

Social Learning Theory So far, we have discussed theories that consider the receiver to be actively involved in information processing. Social learning theory attempts to explain and predict behavior by looking at another way receivers process information. This theory helps us understand that personal example and mass media can be important to receivers acquiring new behaviors. Social psychologist Albert Bandura says that we can learn new behaviors merely by observing others.19 When we see behavior that interests us, we note whether that behavior seems to be rewarding the actor. These rewards can be external, as in praise, or internal, as in “it looks cool.” Bandura says that we vicariously try out the behavior in our minds. If we agree that the behavior is potentially useful to us, it can lie dormant for long periods until we need it. The likelihood that a speciﬁc behavior will occur is

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Chapter 3 • A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations

determined by the expected consequences from performing that behavior. The more positive and rewarding the consequences, the more likely the behavior will occur. Knowing this, public relations people can anticipate that new or inexperienced employees will model the behavior of more experienced employees, particularly if that behavior is rewarded. If a company recognizes with achievement awards the employees who are willing to give their best efforts to satisfy customers, then you can predict that those wanting to get ahead will model those behaviors. Remember: You get the behavior you reward. Social learning theory explains one of the routes to this behavior. (See mini-case 3.1 for another example of these terms in use.)

Three popular theories that apply especially to the mass media are uses and gratiﬁcations theory, framing theory, and agenda setting theory.

THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

Uses and Gratifications Theory It’s important to remember that not everyone regularly reads the daily paper, watches the 6 o’clock news, checks a Facebook page, or listens to talk radio. Papers, TV, and radio are called mass media, but each person chooses how and when to use mass media. Similarly, you shouldn’t presume that employees uniformly read internal publications or view company videos. Even a note in every pay envelope could go straight into the wastebasket. How do we explain this behavior? Uses and gratifications theory asserts that people are active users of media and select how they will use it.20 Researchers have found that people use media in the following ways: As entertainment To scan the environment for items important to them personally As a diversion As a substitute for personal relationships As a check on personal identity and values For public relations practitioners this means that not everyone will see or hear the bad news about a company or product. It also means you can’t count on people seeing or hearing the good news. Just because a message is available in some medium does not mean that people attend to it and remember it. Public relations practitioners should expect that messages in the mass media will be shaped, selected, and interpreted in multiple ways if these messages are seen or heard at all! For example, the American public never did understand why President Clinton’s personal life should interfere with his presidency, even with hours of televised hearings and printed transcripts. Plenty of opinions were aired, even by Jay Leno and Saturday Night Live. But American opinion never changed from a position of distaste for Clinton’s morals and support for his presidency, despite the media. Publics use mediated messages for their uses and gratiﬁcation.

Framing Theory Mass media scholars such as Entman21 suggest that the messages and information sent to audiences carry with them a preexisting set of meanings or frames. Entman deﬁned framing as an active process of drawing out dominant themes from content. These meanings come from the cultural and social groupings in which we live and work. For

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Part I • The Profession

example, the U.S. culture includes a deeply held belief in individualism. This belief shows up in mass media stories all the time—stories of individuals overcoming difﬁculties or excelling at sports, for example. We read these stories framed by “individual behavior” so often that “individual effort” has shaped the way that we communicate about our society. A preexisting interpretation or frame that audiences instantly know and accept is very useful to communicators. Common devices used in media and public relations stories are “catchphrases, depictions, metaphors, exemplars, and visual images.”22 Think how easily we can communicate a meaning by simply stating “War on Terror,” or “Fourth of July.” As public relations advocates for organizations, we seek to get our frames adopted by our publics. In fact, theorists suggest that if we want to communicate successfully with one another, we are bound to use common frames as a necessary condition to being understood.

Agenda Setting Theory Bernard Cohen noted that although the media can’t tell people what to think, they are stunningly successful in telling them what to think about.23 This was an interesting idea but not widely accepted in 1963. About a decade later journalism scholars Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw demonstrated that Cohen was onto something.24 During the 1968 presidential campaign, they followed public opinion and media reports of the key issues in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. They found that a strong positive relationship existed between what voters said was important and what media were reporting as important. Because the issues were evident in the media several weeks before they appeared in public opinion, McCombs and Shaw were reasonably sure that the media set the agenda and not the reverse. Even more amazing was that voters were more likely to agree with the composite media agenda than with the position of the candidate they claimed they favored. McCombs and Shaw do not say that simple agreement with the media changed voting behavior. They simply demonstrated that the media can set the agenda for what we talk and think about. This talking and thinking can lead to information seeking and processing, following the situational theory of publics, but only if other conditions are met. That’s an important point for public relations practitioners to remember when their organization is taking a beating in the press. People may be talking about you, but it doesn’t necessarily mean that strong opinions about your organization will be changed. You will need to do some research before you can draw such a conclusion. Public relations practitioners attempt to inﬂuence the media agenda by providing news items for public consumption. To accomplish this, they identify subjects that editors and news directors consider news, localize their messages, and help media representatives cover the story. (See spotlight 3.3 for a summary of the public relations theories.)

Some of the most important theory building that has been developed in public relations is about the roles of practitioners in organizational life. Some of these roles are managerial; some are tied to marketing. There are communication demands from the human resources function. Even the legal department inﬂuences public relations activities when there is an organizational crisis. At issue is whether public relations practitioners play the right roles to achieve organizational effectiveness.

PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLES

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Theories Used in Public Relations The nine theories highlighted in the chapter are summarized as follows: I. Theories of Relationships 1. Systems theory: evaluates relationships and structure as they relate to the whole. 2. Situational theory: maintains that situations define relationships. II. Theories of Cognition and Behavior 3. Social exchange theory: predicts behavior of groups and individuals and is based on perceived rewards and costs. 4. Diffusion theory: suggests that people adopt an important

Spotlight 3.3

idea or innovation after going through five discrete steps: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. 5. Social learning theory: states that people use information processing to explain and predict behavior. III. Theories of Mass Communication 6. Uses and gratifications theory: states that people are active users of media and select media based on its gratification for them. 7. Framing theory: suggests that individuals use preexisting in-

terpretations to make sense of information and events. 8. Agenda setting theory: suggests that media content that people read, see, and listen to set the agendas for society’s discussion and interaction. IV. Approaches to Conflict Resolution 9. Nine strategies: contention; cooperation; accommodation; avoidance; unconditional constructive; compromise; principled; win-win or no deal; mediated.

Roles are the collection of daily activities that people perform. Glen Broom and David Dozier have studied public relations roles for more than 20 years. Their role types have helped us learn about the power of the public relations function in the organization and how the activities of public relations people produce the right programs, influence strategic planning, and affect the short-range (bottom-line) and long-range (survival) goals of organizations.25 In research on public relations activities, two broad roles consistently emerge in public relations: the technician and the manager. The technician role represents the craft side of public relations: writing, editing, taking photos, handling communication production, running special events, and making telephone calls to the media. These activities focus on the implementation of the management’s overall communication strategies. The manager role focuses on activities that help identify and solve public relations problems. Public relations managers advise senior managers about communication needs and are responsible for broad organizational results. Public relations managers carry out three roles: Expert prescriber: the person who operates as a consultant to define the problem, suggests options, and oversees implementation. Communication facilitator: the person on the boundary between the organization and its environment who keeps two-way communication flowing. Problem-solving facilitator: the person who partners with senior management to identify and solve problems.26 To perform all three roles, much depends on the knowledge of the individual manager. If managers can deliver both manager and technical functions, they achieve higher status in organizational decision making. Public relations professionals cannot expect to achieve a “seat at the table” where they can influence how to achieve beneficial relationships with stakeholders unless they perform both roles. They especially must execute the manager role in such a way that top management will understand its value and demand it of the public relations function.27 61

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Part I • The Profession

One of the most useful ways of thinking about public relations has been through the description of public relations models that identify the central ideas of public relations and how they are related to each other. In 1984 James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt proposed four models of public relations that are based on communication, research, and ethics. Since that time Grunig and a team of scholars have proposed new models that have enriched our understanding of how public relations is practiced. The original four models were press agentry, public information, the two-way asymmetrical model, and the two-way symmetrical model.28 The first three models reflect a practice of public relations that attempts through persuasion to achieve the organization’s goals. The fourth focuses on balancing self-interests and the interests of the other group or public. Press agentry is the model where information moves one way—from the organization to its publics. It is perhaps the oldest form of public relations and is synonymous with promotions and publicity. Public relations practitioners operating under this model are always looking for opportunities to get their organization’s name favorably mentioned in the media. They do not conduct much research about their publics beyond “counting the house.” This model includes propaganda tactics such as use of celebrity names and attention-gaining devices such as giveaways, parades, and grand openings. Although press agents are not unethical, they don’t desire to be ethical either. The louder the noise, the more attention-getting the story, whether true or face, the better they are doing their jobs. Public information differs from press agentry because the intent is to inform rather than to press for promotion and publicity, but the communication is still essentially one-way. Today this model represents public relations practices in government, educational institutions, nonprofit organizations, and even in some corporations. Practitioners operating under this model do very little research about their audiences beyond testing the clarity of their messages. They are “journalists-in-residence,” who value accuracy but decide what information is best to communicate to their publics. The two-way asymmetrical model considers public relations to be scientific persuasion. This model employs social science research methods to increase the persuasiveness of messages. Public relations practitioners use surveys, interviews, and focus groups to measure public relationships so the organization can design public relations programs that will gain the support of key publics. Although feedback is built into the process, the organization is much more interested in having the publics adjust to the organization than the reverse. The two-way symmetrical model depicts a public relations orientation in which organizations and their publics adjust to each other. It focuses on the use of social science research methods to achieve mutual understanding and two-way communication rather than oneway persuasion. In 2001 James E. Grunig created other names for the symmetrical model: mixed motives, collaborative advocacy, and cooperative antagonism. His intent was to present a model that “balanced self-interests with the interest of others in a give-and-take process that can waver between advocacy and collaboration.”29 Grunig argued that this model was the most ethical because all groups were part of the resolution of problems. In 1995 David M. Dozier, Larissa A. Grunig, and James E. Grunig presented a new model of public relations that came from their research on excellence in public relations and communication management. They found in a study of 321 organizations in three countries that public relations practitioners who exhibited the most effective or excellent public relations practices used the “new model of symmetry as two-way practice.”30 This depiction of public relations placed the organization and its publics on a continuum (see figure 3.3). Because in the best practice of public relations, public relations practitioners and their supervisors reported using both two-way symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models, Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig reasoned that given each specific

MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

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Chapter 3 • A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations

Dominant Coalition’s Position

“Win-Win” Zone

Organization’s Position Dominates (Asymmetric)

Type of Practice

Mixed Motive (Symmetric)

Public’s Position

Public’s Position Dominates (Asymmetric)

Explanation

Pure Asymmetry Model

Communication used to dominate public, accept dominant coalition’s position

Pure Cooperation Model

Communication used to convince dominant coalition to cave in to public’s position

Two-Way Model

Communication used to move public, dominant coalition, or both to acceptable “win-win” zone

FIGURE 3.3 New Model of Symmetry as Two-Way Practice

public relations situation, organizations and their publics would seek to persuade each other as much as possible. They are pictured at opposite ends of the continuum, either as a pure asymmetry model in which the dominant coalition tries to force a public into accepting the organization’s position or as a pure cooperation model in which the public uses communication to convince the dominant coalition to accept the public’s position. The middle of the continuum is the “win-win” zone in which the organization and the public use communication to achieve a decision acceptable to both sides. This new model advances our thinking about the practice of public relations because it considers both parties in the public relations situation. Because the organization and its publics will be employing communication strategies as well, we have to be as savvy about our publics’ communication strategies as we are our own. See spotlight 3.2 for James E. Grunig’s most recent theories of public relations. The work on developing models of public relations that more effectively describe how public relations is carried out continued in 1996, with the report of two different models: the cultural interpreter model and the personal inﬂuence model. Although both models fall into the asymmetrical category, they give us more to think about in our understanding of the practice of public relations. Both models were found in research by University of Maryland graduate students who returned to their home countries of India, Greece, and Taiwan to test whether practitioners in these countries were using the four original models of public relations. Although these two new models may represent public relations practiced in other cultures, we see applications of them to practices in the United States. A brief summary of the two models follows: The cultural interpreter model depicts the practice of public relations in organizations that do business in other countries, “where it needs someone who understands the language, culture, customs, and political system of the host country.” The personal influence model depicts a practice of public relations in which practitioners try to establish personal relationships with key individuals, “as contacts through favors can be sought.”31

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Part I • The Profession

If we begin with the notion that conflict resolution is just one of many states in a relationship, we have a better theory about conflict and how to deal with it. All of us have a common understanding of conflict. It involves an individual or group actively opposing another’s values or goals. As with individuals, corporate conflict occurs when a stakeholder moves in a direction different from the organization, producing friction among the parties.32 When this occurs, public relations professionals must often move the organization and its public toward a resolution. Plowman, Briggs, and Huang identified nine types of conflict resolution strategies and linked them to the motives of organizations and publics (see figure 3.4):

APPROACHES TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

Contention. Involves one party forcing its position on another. Cooperation. Both parties work together to reach a mutually beneficial solution. Accommodation. One party partially yields on its position and lowers its aspirations. Avoidance. One or both parties leave the conflict either physically or psychologically. Unconditional Constructive. The organization reconciles the strategic interests of both the organization and its publics, whether the public follows guidelines or not, even if the other party to the conflict does not reciprocate. Compromise. An alternative agreement that stands part way between the parties’ preferred positions. Principled. Both parties hold to higher ethics that cannot be compromised. Win-Win or No Deal. Both parties hold off on any agreement until they are ready for the deal to be struck. Mediated. Involves use of an outside disinterested party.33

Win/Win Zone

Contention

Cooperation

Avoidance

Unconditional

Principled

Win/Win or No Deal

Accommodation

One-Way

One-Way Compromise

Mediated

Underlying Interests of Organization and Publics

FIGURE 3.4 Mixed-Motive Model of Public Relations

Source: Kenneth D. Plowman, William G. Briggs, and Yi-Hui Huang, “Public Relations and Conflict Resolutions,” in Handbook of Public Relations, ed. R.L. Heath (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), p. 304.

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Chapter 3 • A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations

Plowman has substituted perseverance for mediation because he reasoned that mediation was useful across all nine strategies.34 He offered a new word—“humwillity”— combining humility and strength of will or perseverance.35 Clearly, not all of these strategies will result in mutually satisﬁed parties. The conﬂict may be “resolved,” but the public relations practitioner’s job is far from over.

Ben and Jerry’s “Hubby Hubby” Campaign

Case Study

n September of 2009, Vermont became the fourth state to legalize gay and lesbian marriage. Ben & Jerry’s, the iconic Vermont-based ice cream maker, desired to celebrate Vermont’s same-sex marriage unions in its home state while reinforcing its longstanding commitment to social justice and equality for all people despite race, ethnicity, religion, or sexual preference. The result was “Hubby Hubby”—a traditional and social media campaign surrounding the symbolic renaming of Ben & Jerry’s flavor “Chubby Hubby” to “Hubby Hubby,” in partnership with the nonprofit organization Freedom to Marry. Although directly focused on celebrating the legalization of same-sex marriage in Vermont, the campaign had a national approach targeting all Americans to (1) raise awareness of Ben & Jerry’s commitment to social justice, (2) activate consumers to support marriage equality, and (3) engage consumers with the Ben & Jerry’s brand. Ben & Jerry’s worked with Cone/Cone Inc. to develop the research and planning for the campaign. Cone conducted primary research to understand the political legislature and timing surrounding the legalization of gay marriage in Vermont. Cone interviewed Ben & Jerry’s employees to understand further their commitment to the issue. After conducting research, Cone chose the Freedom to Marry nonprofit organization and began discussions to build a mutually beneficial partnership. Cone identified supportive media and bloggers to communicate with about the campaign as well as opposition and planned protests in Vermont. Cone developed crisis preparedness plans with key messages to guide spokespeople (including Ben & Jerry’s executives, franchisees, and retail partners) in advance of possible positive and negative information. The campaign sought to build on the successful legislation legalizing gay and lesbian marriage and Ben & Jerry’s stances on social justice. It formed a partnership with a third-party organization that would lend credibility to the campaign; and it utilized online and offline elements to engage consumers and promote a “call-to-action” to sign Freedom to Marry’s online marriage resolution. Ben & Jerry’s media relations efforts consist of a national press announcement of the symbolic renaming of “Chubby Hubby” to “Hubby Hubby” for the month of September in celebration of the September 1, 2009, Vermont legislation. Ben & Jerry’s gave an exclusive to the Associated Press within a larger political piece three days prior to the announcement. Ben & Jerry’s gave morning-of-broadcast interviews with all local Vermont network affiliates. Finally, it directed its media relations efforts with gay community, mainstream print, online, and broadcast outlets.

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Part I • The Profession

Two mobile Ben & Jerry’s “Just Marriage” vehicles traveled throughout Vermont, including the State House and city halls. Free “Hubby Hubby” samples were provided to celebrate the legislation with locals. Each store received information to display about the flavor renaming and nonprofit partner, plus made available a new special “Hubby Hubby” sundae. Ben & Jerry’s distributed information in its “Chunkspelunker” e-mail newsletter and online database. It posted the campaign information via Facebook and Twitter. Information was available at BenJerry.com and FreedomtoMarry .org. It bought search engine marketing ads on Google, inserting the campaign messages in relevant real-time Internet searches. The campaign reached more than 433 million people in September alone, including key placements with “Early Today,” “The Jay Leno Show,” “Late Show with David Letterman,” Associated Press, and PrezHilton.com. Interviews led to feeds via ABC, NBC, CBS, FOX, and CNN. Overwhelmingly, 89 percent of media coverage was rated positive/neutral. More than 15,500 visited FreedomToMarry .org within the first week, a 720 percent traffic increase. Some 919 signed the nonprofit organization’s Marriage Resolution, a 45 percent increase. And, nearly 500 celebratory flavor samples were distributed in Vermont on September 1. Source: Excerpted from PRSA Silver Anvil Awards, 2010, Ben & Jerry’s “Hubby Hubby” Campaign, www.prsa.org.

Questions 1. How do the three theories of mass communication—uses and gratifications theory, framing theory, and agenda setting theory—help explain the success of the Ben & Jerry’s “Hubby Hubby” campaign? 2. How do social exchange theory and social learning theory help explain the success of the “Hubby Hubby” campaign? 3. The campaign issue surrounding legalizing gay and lesbian marriage could have created conflict for Ben & Jerry’s, despite its reputation for social justice. What did Ben & Jerry’s do to create a “win-win zone” between it and key audiences? How do the new model of symmetry and two-way practice and the mixed-motive model of public relations (figures 3.3 and 3.4) help explain the success of the campaign? 4. What other theories do you think help explain Ben & Jerry’s campaign success?

Summary For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

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Theories of how public relations is practiced continue to develop. The original four models of public relations were a good starting point for describing the key activities that public relations practitioners perform: communication, research, and ethics. They gave us a way of organizing our concepts by types of public relations practice. James E. Grunig proposed to move on from the models of public relations to more speciﬁc sets of measurable variables: symmetry and asymmetry (research method choices); the extent of one-way versus two-way communication; the use of mediated and interpersonal forms of communication; and the extent to which public relations is practiced ethically.36 These four dimensions give us even deeper and more sophisticated ways of thinking about public relations than did the original models. They help us predict more effectively what will and will not work in our practice of public relations.

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Chapter 3 • A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations

boundary spanners closed system conﬂict resolution cultural interpreter model diffusion theory dominant coalition environment framing theory manager role media agenda message models open system personal inﬂuence model

1. Doug McVay, “In Fighting the Drug War, Keep Kids’ Behavior Focused on Positive Actions; Lessons Applicable for All,” pr reporter, June 3, 2002, pp. 1–2. 2. Ibid., p. 1. 3. Charles Atkin and Alicia Marshall, “Health Communication,” in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. Michael B. Salwen and Don W. Stacks (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), pp. 479–96. 4. Larissa A. Grunig, James E. Grunig, and David M. Dozier, Excellence in Public Relations and Effective Organizations: A Study of Communication Management in Three Countries (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002). 5. Ibid., p. 5. 6. J. E. Grunig and Fred C. Repper, “Strategic Management, Publics, and Issues,” in Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management, ed. J. E. Grunig (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1992), pp. 117–58. 7. Maggie M. Kohn, “Integrating Responsibility Communications at Merck,” Strategic Communication Management 8 (2004), p. 32. 8. David M. Dozier, Larissa A. Grunig, and J. E. Grunig, The Manager’s Guide to Public Relations and Communication Management (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1995), p. 15.

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persuasion publics receiver roles situational theory social exchange theory social learning theory source stakeholders systems theory technician role theory uses and gratiﬁcations theory

9. Vada Manager, “Integrated Issues Management,” Strategic Communication Management 8, no. 6 (2004), p. 4.

Key Terms

Notes

10. Grunig and Repper, “Strategic Management,” pp. 117–58. 11. James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt, Managing Public Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1984). 12. Michael Pfau and Hua-Hsin Wan, ”Persuasion: An Intrinsic Function of Public Relations,” in Public Relations Theory 11, ed. Carl H. Botan and Vincent Hazelton (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum), p. 102. 13. Michael D. Miller and Timothy R. Levine, “Persuasion,” in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, ed. Michael B. Salwen and Don W. Stacks (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), p. 261. 14. Ibid., p. 262. 15. Ibid., pp. 262–63. 16. Ibid., p. 262. 17. John W. Thibaut and Harold H. Kelley, The Social Psychology of Groups (New York: Wiley, 1959). 18. Herbert F. Lionberger, Adoption of New Ideas and Practices (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1960), p. 32. 19. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977). 20. Elihu Katz, Jay G. Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch, “Utilization of Mass Communication by the Individual,” in

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Part I • The Profession The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, ed. J. G. Blumler and E. Katz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1974), pp. 19–32. 21. Robert M. Entman, “Framing: Toward a Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm,” Journal of Communication 4, no. 3 (1993), pp. 51–58. 22. Lynn M. Zoch and Juan-Carlos Molleda, “Building a Theoretical Model of Media Relations Using Framing, Information Subsidies, and Agenda-Building” in Public Relations Theory II, ed. Carl H. Botan and Vincent Hazelton (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum), p. 262. 23. Bernard C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963). 24. Donald E. Shaw and Maxwell E. McCombs, The Emergence of American Political Issues: The Agenda Setting Function of the Press (St. Paul, MN: West, 1977). 25. Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig, The Manager’s Guide. 26. Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center, and Glen M. Broom, Effective Public Relations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000), pp. 41–44. 27. Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig, The Manager’s Guide. 28. Grunig and Hunt, Managing Public Relations. 29. James E. Grunig, “Two-Way Symmetrical Public Relations: Past, Present, Future,” in The Handbook of Public Relations, ed.

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Robert L. Heath (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), p. 28. 30. Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig, The Manager’s Guide, p. 48. 31. James E. Grunig, Larissa A. Grunig, K. Sriramesh, Yi-Hui Huang, and Anastasia Lyra, “Models of Public Relations in an International Setting,” Journal of Public Relations Research 7, no. 3 (1995), p. 183. 32. Larissa A. Grunig, “Power in the Public Relations Department,” in Public Relations Research Annual, ed. Larissa A. Grunig and James E. Grunig (1990), pp. 115–56. 33. Kenneth D. Plowman, William G. Briggs, and Yi-Hui Huang, “Public Relations and Conflict Resolution,” in Handbook of Public Relations, ed. Robert L. Heath (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), p. 304. See also Kenneth D. Plowman et al., “Walgreens: A Case Study in Health Care Issues and Conflict Resolution,” Journal of Public Relations Research 7, no. 4 (1995), pp. 231–58; Kenneth D. Plowman, “Power in Conflict for Public Relations,” Journal of Public Relations Research 10 (1998), pp. 237–62. 34. Kenneth D. Plowman. “Public Relations, Conflict Resolution, and Mediation,” in The Future of Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management: Challenges for the Next Generation, ed. Elizabeth L. Toth (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007), p. 96. 35. Ibid. 36. Grunig, “Power in the Public,” p. 28.

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C H A P T E R

Law and Ethics

OUTLINE PREVIEW THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT First Amendment Rights and Limits Government Regulatory Agencies General Business Regulations Legal Considerations Surrounding the Internet Litigation Public Relations THE ETHICAL ENVIRONMENT Ethics as Standards of Social Conduct Individual Ethics Business Ethics Establishing Standards for a Developing Profession The PRSA Code The IABC Code The Question of Licensure CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES

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PREVIEW

t’s been a long day. You’re tired, but your brain is awhirl, and you can’t sleep. What you really need is to spend a little time relaxing with a good book, so you get up, go to your

computer, download the latest John Grisham thriller from Google for free, and settle down to read. Impossible? For now, yes. But many publishers and authors are afraid that Google’s Print for Libraries program, intended to offer users searchable, digitized versions of public-domain books from great American and British research libraries, could morph into a free, unauthorized giveaway of copyrighted texts. Five publishers have already filed a lawsuit claiming the program violates federal copyright laws. Some publishing executives think the proposed program could benefit both publishers and authors, while others fear not only copyright infringement but also the possibility of piracy as well. Google is assuring publishers and the public alike that only “snippets” of copyrighted texts will be made available, and they will be accompanied by links to Web sites where the books can be purchased. A Google executive noted that Google has nurtured a “respectful relationship” with the owners of content it distributes.1 Will Google and the publishers come to an agreement about what constitutes “fair use,” or will they fight it out in court? How will each party shape the reading public’s perception of its side of the argument? In either case, the public relations practitioners for Google and the publishers association will be busy.

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Part I • The Profession

According to a survey of public relations practitioners, “Many public relations professionals may be placing themselves and their client organizations at risk of legal liability because they have little or no familiarity with important legal issues that affect public relations activities.”2 Thus, because public relations practitioners are increasingly vulnerable to legal liability, it is more important than ever that they be acquainted with key legal issues such as First Amendment rights and limits, libel, privacy, copyright contracts, commercial speech, and numerous federal, state, and local government regulations. Also, public relations practitioners work with organizational lawyers in the area of litigation. When an employer or client gets sued, public relations is involved in a court of law and, at the courthouse steps, maintaining relationships that come under scrutiny.

THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT

First Amendment Rights and Limits One of the most strongly supported rights of U.S. citizens is the right to freedom of speech, which is guaranteed under the First Amendment to the Constitution: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Court cases have clarified that organizations enjoy much the same freedom of speech as do individuals. In the 1964 Supreme Court case of New York Times v. Sullivan, nonprofit organizations for the first time received an endorsem*nt to use advertisem*nts to discuss matters of public interest. In the case, The New York Times carried a full-page ad titled “Heed Their Rising Voices,” which made claims that Alabama state college students had been harassed by police and other state authorities. The ad was paid for by a number of African American clergy. L. B. Sullivan, a Montgomery, Alabama, city commissioner claimed that the ad libeled him. But the Supreme Court ruled for The New York Times, because the ad communicated information, expressed opinion, recited grievances, protested, claimed abuses, and sought financial support on behalf of a movement whose existence and objectives are matters of the highest public interest and concern.3 First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti involved a for-profit organization’s right of political and social free speech. When the First National Bank of Boston wanted to oppose and advertise publicly against a Massachusetts personal income tax referendum, State Attorney General Francis Bellotti said a state law barred corporations from participation in referenda that did not affect the corporation directly. First National sued the state for violating its First Amendment right to speak. In 1978 the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the bank. Today, we see full-page and electronic forms of advertisem*nts from both for-profit and nonprofit organizations freely entering the political and social debates of our society. In a similar case in 1980, Consolidated Edison Company of New York v. Public Service Commission of New York, the court reaffirmed the utility’s right to discuss public issues. Consolidated Edison had spoken out to its customers using brochures and flyers included with monthly billings. Justice Powell reiterated from the Bellotti case: “The inherent worth of the speech in terms of its capacity for informing the public does not depend on the identity of the source.”4 Commercial speech is another legal concept that is important to public relations programs. In 1976, Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, Inc. extended First Amendment protection for truthful marketing of legal products and services. At issue was whether potential purchasers of prescription medicines had the right to know the price of prescription drugs, which at that time could

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Chapter 4 • Law and Ethics

vary as much as 600 percent from pharmacy to pharmacy.5 The Supreme Court sided with the consumer’s interest in the free flow of information rather than the pharmacists’ claim that to discuss pricing was unprofessional conduct. The Supreme Court decisions in these and other cases opened the door to issuesoriented advertising by corporations, associations, and special interest groups. The broadened interpretation of free speech protections resulted in increased corporate political activity through lobbying and political action committees (PACs). Free speech is not without its limits. Most juries today interpret the First Amendment to mean that free speech should be balanced against other human values or rights. Those other rights — for example, the right to privacy, the right to a good reputation, or the right to own property — can restrict the right to free speech. Although free flow of commercial information is indispensable, public communications — news releases, company newsletters, speeches, and advertisem*nts — are limited to the extent that they may not slander or libel an individual, invade an individual’s privacy, infringe on existing copyrights or trademarks, breach contracts, or violate regulatory requirements. These protections and limitations are now being extended to a new channel of communication — the Internet. Defamation Defamation is speech defined as “the publication of material that would hold one up to hatred, ridicule, contempt, or spite.”6 There are two types of defamation: libel and slander. Libel is published defamation, by written or printed words or in some other physical form. Slander is defamation by spoken words, gestures, or other transitory means.7 Public relations practitioners have to consider that “nearly every press release, news article, or advertisem*nt holds the potential for a libel suit.”8 At risk as well are the products and services of clients that could be disparaged in a public way. Consider Oprah Winfrey’s 1996 airing of a segment on mad cow disease that implied that the U.S. beef industry lacked protections for consumers. The program resulted in immediate financial losses to the beef industry. In the subsequent lawsuit, the court eventually ruled in favor of Winfrey, stating that she had not defamed anyone. Libel law has two categories: criminal and civil. Although the Supreme Court has frequently overturned criminal convictions and they are rare today, individuals have been found guilty of criminal libel in cases of “breach of peace” or “inciting to riot.” More important to public relations practitioners is civil libel. For a statement to be libelous, it must contain certain elements. It must be published, it must be damaging, and it must identify the injured party. Negligence must be involved, and the statement must be defamatory. If the statement involves a public figure, another element becomes of paramount importance: It must involve malice. Publication is considered to have occurred when the alleged defamation has been communicated to a third party. For example, it is “published” when the writer, the injured party, and one other person have seen or heard the remark. Defamation deals with the words themselves or the implication behind the words. A person’s or organization’s reputation (not character) has been damaged, for example, by calling him or her a terrorist, a traitor, or a liar. See mini-case 4.1 on defamation claims by organizations versus First Amendment rights of cybersmearers. Damage has occurred if the remarks reflect poorly on one’s reputation, impair one’s ability to earn a living, or restrict one’s social contacts. Identification has occurred when readers or listeners are able to identify the person referred to, whether or not the person is specifically named. Fault must be shown in order for the plaintiff to win a libel suit. If the wrong photograph is run with an article, if there is a typographical or mechanical error in the

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Mini Case 4.1 ●

One of the most daunting challenges to organizations is the Internet’s incredible reach with the wrong information. In an instant, gossip, misinformation, and accusations can be sent to millions of people who are unlikely to know whether the author is fictitious or accurate. Called attacks or cybersmear, organizations have tried to sue these individuals claiming libel. In order to do so, the organization must of course show that the defendant published a false, defamatory statement that identifies the company. For public figures, the published remarks must be shown also to be done with “malice.” In early cases, companies sought to sue the Internet providers who knew who the alleged smearers were. However, companies had to sue unnamed “John Doe” defendants and then subpoena the Internet provider to hand over the identifying information.

Dealing with Cybersmearers

Therefore, courts became more supportive of John Doe defendants because of their First Amendment rights to speak anonymously. In July 2001, a New Jersey appellate court established a four-part test in Dendrite International, Inc. v. John Doe No. 3 before requiring Internet providers to turn over identifications: 1. Effort must be made to inform John Does that they were subject to a subpoena. 2. The plaintiff organization must identify the exact comments believed to defame it. 3. The case for defamation must survive a motion to dismiss. 4. The court must decide if the defendant’s First Amendment rights to anonymous speech outweigh the strength of the plaintiff’s case. Case law against cybersmearers continues to be anything but clear. Plus,

organizations that want to sue may find that these legal actions are expensive and time-consuming and may result in further unfavorable publicity. Questions 1. Do you think that the Internet should be regulated to protect free speech, including false claims, misinformation, and accusations that damage the reputations of organizations? Why or why not? 2. Where would you absolutely draw a line to protect organizations from cybersmearers? 3. What role, if any, can public relations people contribute to counteracting false accusations or misinformation that arrives via the Internet? Source: From Nicole B. Casarez, “Dealing with Cybersmear: How to Protect Your Organization from Online Defamation,” Public Relations Quarterly (Summer 2002), pp. 40–45.

publication process, or if information is not carefully checked, the defendant may be found negligent. Malice occurs when the plaintiff can prove that the defendant knew the published material was false or showed a reckless disregard for the truth. Only public figures must prove malice. Politicians, elected government officials, and CEOs of corporations are obvious public figures. So is entertainer Carol Burnett, who successfully sued The National Enquirer for $10 million for maliciously depicting her as a public drunk. She used her financial award to set up prizes for journalism ethics. While lawsuits are filed against media, any corporation, organization, or public relations practitioner can be guilty of defamation through written material or remarks made before any group of people. Defenses Against Libel Charges There are three primary defenses against libel charges—truth, qualified privilege, and fair comment. The primary legal defense is the truth. A second legal defense is privilege. Privilege protects materials and remarks coming from official proceedings and actions of members in executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The third legal defense is fair comment. If communication involves matters of genuine public interest, expressing critical opinions is permissible. The information must be in the public interest and supported with factual material. Examples include movie, book, and restaurant criticism, but fair comment could apply to consumer products, services, or the work of charitable organizations. For the public relations professional, all communication about employees, competitors, and campaigns must be researched and controversial material pretested, and when there is concern, legal advice must be sought. Rights of Privacy Defamation concerns broadly the publication of speech that is derogatory. But even complimentary information may break the law if it invades 74

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Legal issues are a constant concern for public information officers for government whether it is local, state or federal.

another’s privacy rights. Public relations practitioners disseminate many kinds of messages—about their own organizations, fellow employees, participants in special events, customers, and students on a campus. None of these messages should be created without ﬁrst thinking about protecting privacy. There are generally four kinds of invasion of privacy: appropriation, publication of private information, intrusion, and false light. Appropriation is the use for monetary gain of a person’s name, likeness, or picture without permission. Publication of private information concerns information that is true but not generally known by a large number of people. Health, employment, and student records are examples of private information for which permission must be granted before it can be shared. Intrusion concerns videotaping, bugging, or snooping into others’ private affairs. It is illegal to secretly record others’ voices or actions without informing a person that the recording is being done. False light concerns publication of truthful information that is exaggerated or used out of context. The best defense against invasion of privacy charges is obtaining written consent. Standard consent forms should be used whenever individuals’ likenesses or personal information are used in public relations materials (see ﬁgure 4.1). The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), passed in 1966 and amended in 1974, generally requires that all government records— documents, press releases, and publications—are open to the public. For example, U.S. Census data and Department of Labor reports are available to all citizens. Government agencies must tell citizens what information is available to them and how they can obtain it. These agencies even have Web sites that include descriptions of types of information and direct links to this information over the Internet. Businesses use the FOIA to obtain government statistics and other research, such as environmental impact statements and applications for government permits. Activist organizations keep track of laws and regulations under consideration by public bodies, of minutes of meetings, and proposed government plans for zoning and development changes. Congress passed the Sunshine Act in 1976, which opened to the public some previously closed meetings of federal boards, commissions, and agencies, including the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Federal Trade Commission. Many state and local governments have similar statutes affecting their boards and commissions. For

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Adult Release In consideration of my engagement as a model, and for other good and valuable consideration herein acknowledged or received, upon the terms hereafter stated, I hereby grant _______________, his legal representatives and assigns, those for whom _______________ is acting, and those acting with his authority and permission, the absolute right and permission to copyright and use, reuse and publish, and republish photographic portraits or pictures of me or in which I may be included, in whole or in part, or composite or distorted in character or form, without restriction as to changes or alteration, from time to time, in conjunction with my own or a ﬁctitious name, or reproductions thereof in color or otherwise made through any media at his studios or elsewhere for art, advertising, trade or any other purpose whatsoever. I also consent to the use of any printed matter in conjunction therewith. I hereby waive any right that I may have to inspect or approve the ﬁnished product or products of the advertising copy or printed matter that may be used in connection therewith or the use to which it may be applied. I hereby release, discharge and agree to save harmless _______________, his legal representatives or assigns, and all persons acting under his permission or authority or those for whom he is acting, from any liability by virtue of any blurring, distortion, alteration, optical illusion, or use in composite form, whether intentional or otherwise, that may occur or be produced in the taking of said picture or in any subsequent processing thereof, as well as any publication thereof even though it may subject me to ridicule, scandal, reproach, scorn and indignity. I hereby warrant that I am of full age and have every right to contract in my own name in the above regard. I state further that I have read the above authorization, release and agreement, prior to its execution, and that I am fully familiar with the contents thereof. Dated ______________________________________ Signed ______________________________________ (Address) ___________________________________ ____________________________________________ (Witness) __________________________________

FIGURE 4.1 This use of a standard release form can protect against possible charges of invasion of privacy.

example, local ofﬁcials may be prohibited from meeting as a group unless there is public notice of such a meeting. Organizational privacy is being contested because of the USA Patriot Act of 2001, which allows access to information to obstruct terrorism. Public relations professionals working for airlines, power plants, and government buildings, to name a few organizations, will have to explain opening up records against the objections of customers and clients and the conﬁscating of cell phones and laptops, at U.S. Customs entry.

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Government Regulatory Agencies Many federal government agencies have a watchdog role regarding business and organizational communication, such as the Federal Trade Commission, the Food and Drug Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, the National Labor Relations Board, and the Securities and Exchange Commission. Regulatory complaints from any of these federal agencies may originate with the agency itself, or consumers, labor leaders, or competitors may bring them to the attention of the agency. Public relations personnel should anticipate how federal laws and regulations could be broken when an organization seeks to communicate with any number of consumer, employee, or competitor publics. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) The FTC governs all commercial advertising and product or service news releases, typical media for marketing communications. Advertising and news releases are illegal if they deceive or mislead the public in any way. Likewise, promotional practices are illegal unless they are literally true. The FTC requires that unsubstantiated or false claims for products be omitted from future advertising, and some advertisers may also be required to run corrective ads. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) The FDA regulates labeling, packaging, and sale of food, drugs, and cosmetics. The regulations govern both product safety and product advertising. Many product recalls and the prohibition of some drug products in the United States result from a failure to meet FDA safety regulations or guidelines. The FDA is responsible for the nutritional labeling on many food products. Public relations practitioners working on product introductions will have to be able to explain FDA regulations to many stakeholders, including customers and the media. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) The FCC regulates broadcasting, television, and radio to ensure that licensees are operating in the public interest. Of concern to political public relations practitioners are Sections 315 and 317 of the Federal Communications Act. They monitor the content of political broadcasting so that all parties have equal opportunity to be heard. A public relations practitioner for a political candidate should know the following in Section 315a: If any licensee shall permit any person who is a legally qualified candidate for any public office to use a broadcasting station, he shall afford equal opportunities to all other such candidates for that office in the use of such broadcasting station, provided that such licensee should have no power of censorship over the material broadcast under provisions of this section. No obligation is hereby imposed upon any licensee to allow the use of its station by any such candidate.9

Although Section 315 doesn’t require stations to provide broadcast time, Section 312(a7) does. It requires stations to sell “reasonable amounts of time” to legally qualiﬁed candidates for federal ofﬁce. Stations aren’t held accountable for content, but candidates, their organizations, and their public relations practitioners are accountable. National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) The NLRB oversees the 1935 National Labor Relations Act, the primary law governing communications between unions and employers. The act deals with all aspects of union activities, including the right to join unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to engage in union activities. The act also protects nonunion activities such as nonunion walkouts, working conditions, and

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employee discussions of compensation. All of these activities would require that managers and public relations professionals express company positions in ways that are not coercive or threatening to management-labor relationships. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) The SEC enforces laws and regulations concerning the purchase of stocks of publicly owned corporations that are listed on any of the 13 largest U.S. stock exchanges or that have assets of $1 million and 500 stockholders. It enforces the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 and other regulations that require that corporations “act promptly to dispel unfounded rumors which result in unusual market activity or price variations.” The Securities and Exchange Act of 1933 requires the “full and fair disclosure of the character of securities . . . and to prevent frauds in the sale thereof. The Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 supplemented the previous year’s legislation and was intended to “secure, for issues publicly offered, adequate publicity for those facts necessary for an intelligent judgment of their value.” The SEC requires submission of three kinds of reports: annual reports (Form 10-K), quarterly reports (Form 10-Q), and current reports (Form 8-K). Although the information in these reports is produced by accountants and lawyers, these publications have strategic public relations value because they are distributed to many audiences, including stockholders, financial analysts, and potential investors. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires public companies to be much more “transparent” in their communication with stockholders, investors, employees, retirees, and government officials. Passed in response to the collapse of Houston-based Enron Corporation, public companies must provide much more information about their officers, financial transactions, and specific codes of ethics. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act has brought new responsibilities to corporate communication officers who assist in disclosing corporate decision making to the financial media, stock analysts, and investors. See chapter 13 for more information on this and other investor relations material.

General Business Regulations Public relations is a practice protected by the First Amendment and regulated as a function of organizations. But public relations is also a business activity, involved in creating and protecting organizational brands and reputations. Thus, public relations practitioners need to know general business regulations, such as copyright law, trademark law, contracts, and the laws of litigation. “Public relations practitioners must understand the extent to which the general laws of business also govern their ﬁeld; but they and the media are subject to the normal laws of business, such as antitrust regulations, even though their expression may be protected by the First Amendment.”10 Copyright Law Public relations practitioners must have legal consent to use another’s creative expression or “intellectual property,” such as graphic designs, music to use in videos, annual report and brochure copy, photographs, and other original artistic works ﬁxed in any tangible form. Self-employed public relations consultants copyright their materials unless they contractually sign away that right to their clients. Only when fair use is established can public relations practitioners produce or copy others’ creative expression. The fair use provision of the Copyright Act allows use of others’ materials with broad provisions addressing the following: 1.

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The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonproﬁt educational purposes.

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2. 3. 4.

The nature of the copyrighted work is challenged. The amount and substantiality of the portion used is veriﬁed with the copyright holder. The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work is considered.

This means that in the preparation of communications, a portion of copyrighted material may be used without the author’s permission 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

If it is not taken out of context. If credit to the source is given. If such usage does not materially affect the market for the copyrighted material. If the work in which it is used is for scholastic, news, or research purposes. If the material used does not exceed a certain percentage of the total work.

No percentage is given in the law; it depends on the work. One rule of thumb: Don’t use any music; use only a fraction of poetry; but you can use 100 to 200 words of a book or article. Trademark Laws Trademark laws cover the names of businesses and business products. Just as patent laws often cover the products themselves, their names can be covered under trademarks. Organizations want exclusive rights to their brand or service names, logos, and symbols. It would be trademark infringement to market a product with a name strongly resembling or suggestive of an existing trademark or trade name. Companies zealously protect their product brands against those who would try to use the brand without permission. They also guard against a brand name becoming generic for all of the products in its category, thus sacrificing its uniqueness and causing serious advertising and public relations problems. Think of such brands as Kleenex, Band-Aid, and Xerox that have lost their uniqueness because these trade names are used for all products in their categories. Contracts Copyrighted and trademarked materials may be used if permission is given by the copyright or trademark holder. Permission for use can constitute a contract, a legal instrument that protects the rights of two or more parties. Public relations practitioners often must use contracts. Independent public relations professionals need contracts between themselves and the firms or individuals they represent. Special events may require contracts with hotels, musical groups, caterers, and others. Practitioners contract with outside vendors, such as publishing or printing firms, mail distribution agencies, and electronic clipping services, to do production and research work. For a contract to be binding, it must meet certain legal criteria. For example, a contract must include the following: 1. 2. 3.

A genuine, legal offer A legally effective acceptance An agreement that includes an exchange of acts or promises, which is called “consideration”11

Some but not all contracts must be in writing. Courts often consider oral contracts binding if all legal tests have been met in the process. If obligations set out in a contract are not fulﬁlled, a possible breach of contract has occurred.

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Legal Considerations Surrounding the Internet The Internet is demanding new regulation in libel, copyright, and privacy. These are important issues to public relations practitioners who have taken advantage of going directly to stakeholders with this immediate, compelling channel of communication. Copyright and the Net Public relations practitioners are using the Internet and online services to send and find breaking news, feature stories, speeches, photos, and information about their agencies or organizations and to receive direct inquiries and feedback from stakeholders. Even though these resources are conveniently accessible, they are still copyright protected, and public relations professionals should not use materials without permission.12 BusinessWeek calls copyright violation on the Internet “highway robbery,” claiming that infringement goes far beyond the copy machine violations. A digital copyright code was designed in 1995 to put a “cipher,” or a code, identifying the owner into each copyrighted work on the Internet.13 Libel and the Net Though there is still debate in the courts about who is responsible for libel on the Internet, public relations practitioners would be held accountable for libel should they use the Net because the practitioner controls the messages sent to the public. Common carriers such as telephone companies, however, are not responsible because they don’t control the statements. A New York court decided in 1995 that an Internet provider could be held responsible if it edited electronic messages posted by subscribers. The Long Island securities investment firm Stratton Oakmont Inc. sued Prodigy for $200 million because an anonymous user of Prodigy’s “Money Talk” bulletin board falsely portrayed the company as criminals involved in fraud.14 The court said that because Prodigy marketed itself as a family-oriented online service that screened new messages on its bulletin board, it was more like a publisher than like a common carrier. Privacy and the Net Privacy is a “source of worry” for senders and receivers of Internet messages. Because Internet communication can be tracked and traced, and authors identified by authorities, hackers, and identity thieves, the public has a strong desire to have personal information protected as more and more of the world intrudes through e-mail and cyberspace. Organizations have varying policies on what types of information employees may exchange over the Net. E-mail addresses are being sold to vendors who want to use them for sales purposes. Public relations practitioners have to weigh the gains and hazards of this channel of communication as a means of reaching stakeholders and maintaining relationships with them.

Litigation Public Relations Organizations must consider whether and how relationships with clients, employees, government, and the media would be affected should they ﬁnd themselves in court. Media interest in an organization accused of wrongdoing or other reputation-damaging activities could be constant enough that, regardless of how the court case is resolved, the accused organization is found to be less credible and trustworthy by its constituents outside the courthouse. Dow Corning is being sued for billions of dollars by women who claim its silicone gel–ﬁlled breast implants caused them multiple ailments, pain, and suffering. This corporation found itself in litigation because of a CBS television show aired in 1990 in which Connie Chung interviewed several women who claimed that their breast implants gave them autoimmune disease. Years later, Dow Corning was still spending thousands of dollars in time and money attempting in court to reach a bankruptcy reorganization and, at the same time, seeking means through communication to keep its employees productive

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Former WorldCom Chief Financial Officer Scott Sullivan (center) is escorted to a court appearance. He was sentenced to five years in prison for his role in the WorldCom accounting scandal.

and its reputation credible so that it will keep its stockholders, customers, suppliers, and successful relationships with the community, government, and the media.15 Public relations practitioners have to concern themselves, too, with product liability. This refers to the “legal responsibility of companies to compensate individuals for injuries or damages resulting from defects in products that were purchased.”16 Facing negative publicity, McDonald’s settled a product liability claim ﬁled by a woman who spilled its coffee while attempting to drive and hold the coffee cup between her legs.

Kant deﬁned ethics as “a science that teaches, not how THE ETHICAL ENVIRONMENT we are to achieve happiness, but how we are to become 17 worthy of happiness.” What is legal is not always ethical, and what is ethical is not always legal. Laws cover only so many situations in public relations. In many situations, public relations professionals have to make judgments about “the right thing to do” to build relationships between the organization and its publics. Public relations practitioners must weigh the beneﬁt versus the harm of their communication activities and/or have the moral resolve to say yes or no, because the long-term effects of a bad decision will offset a short-term gain. Ethics is an area of concern for public relations for four reasons. First, practitioners are aware that, to some, public relations has a reputation for unethical behavior. Second, public relations is often the source of ethical statements from an organization and the repository of ethical and social policies for that organization. Third, practitioners have struggled to create suitable codes of ethics for themselves; and fourth, practitioners should act on behalf of their organizations as the ethical ombudsman for the publics they serve. If public relations seeks to achieve professional status as a communication function that represents the public interest as well as the organization in business decision making, its practitioners must be held to higher standards (see spotlight 4.1).

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Spotlight 4.1 Daniel Goleman’s seminal work on emotional intelligence (1995) is generally seen as having dramatically altered the discussion about what portends success. The notion that what had broadly been known as “people skills” could be put on the same playing field as critical thinking, language skills, and other traditional measures of intelligence was novel to say the least. The concept, though, has had great appeal, not only in psychology and sociology, but with researchers in fields as diverse as medicine, education, sports, marketing, human resources, speech pathology, and management. Yet virtually nothing had been written about the connection between emotional intelligence and the successful practice of public relations until Howard. Emotional intelligence goes beyond the fourth tradition of public relations of two-way communication in that it adds both an intrapersonal level and an emotive and empathic understanding. Emotional intelligence operates in an environment of an emotionally

Emotional Intelligence in Public Relations Practice

healthy practitioner and an emotionally healthy relationship between the practitioner and the organization he or she represents and the appropriate publics. Emotional intelligence is more than simply listening to the various publics for the information they may impart and the concerns they voice; it also entails understanding the emotional climate in which these concerns and criticisms arise. Many of today’s extravagantly paid CEOs and the public relations persons who represent them could do well to learn from Goleman’s 25 competencies of emotional intelligence, which include trustworthiness, conscientiousness, commitment, understanding others, political awareness, communication, leadership, and collaboration and cooperation. In public relations materials, trustworthiness was the leading competency found by Dr. Timothy Howard at California State University, Sacramento. Defined as “maintaining standards of honesty and integrity,” trustworthiness

is an essential trait of public relations professionals who engage in ethical and conscientious work. A practitioner is only as valuable to the company or institution he or she serves as the credibility of the communications that issue from his or her office. If he or she cannot be trusted, he or she cannot be relied upon by the various publics with whom he or she interacts. Trustworthiness is at the core of the ethical practice of public relations, and it is what is so sorely lacking in many of the corporate and financial fiascoes and displays of insensitivity that have surfaced in the past decade. It is Howard’s contention that a new, fifth tradition of public relations— that of emotional intelligence—would go a long way to healing the rift between corporations and the general public and to improving the image of public relations as a whole. Source: Timothy Howard, associate professor of public relations in the communications department at California State University, Sacramento.

Ethics as Standards of Social Conduct Ethics is what is morally right or wrong in social conduct, usually as determined by standards of professions, organizations, and individuals. Ethical behavior is a major consideration that distinguishes the civilized from the uncivilized in society. Allen Center and Patrick Jackson argue that ﬁve factors regulate social conduct: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tradition. Ways in which the situation has been viewed or handled in the past. Public Opinion. Currently acceptable behavior according to the majority of one’s peers. Law. Behaviors that are permissible and those that are prohibited by legislation. Morality. Generally, a spiritual or religious prohibition. Immorality is a charge usually leveled in issues on which religious teachings have concentrated. Ethics. Standards set by the profession, an organization, or oneself, based on conscience—what is right or fair to others as well as to self ?18

Individual Ethics Ralph Waldo Emerson, an American philosopher, said, “What you are stands over you the while, and thunders so that I cannot hear what you say.” This same philosophy was evident in the work of Ivy Lee, one of the early pioneers of public relations. Lee considered that public relations actions, not words, are more important. His 1906 Declaration of Principles was the forerunner of a code of ethics for public relations. 82

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Chapter 4 • Law and Ethics

More important than ethical codes of public relations, though, is the nature of the individual, private ethics of the practitioner. When it comes right down to it, the practitioner must have a high personal standard of ethics that carries over into his or her own work. James E. Grunig, a leading proponent of public relations professionalism, argued that individual practitioners must have two basic guiding ethical principles: 1. 2.

They must have the will to be ethical, intending not to injure others, but rather to be honest and trustworthy. They must make every effort to avoid actions that would have adverse consequences for others.19

At the heart of any discussion of ethics in public relations are some questions that are deeply troubling for the individual practitioner. For example, will she or he ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■

Lie for a client or employer? Engage in deception to collect information about another practitioner’s clients? Help conceal a hazardous condition or illegal act? Present information that presents only part of the truth? Offer something (gift, travel, or information) to reporters or legislators that may compromise their reporting? Present true but misleading information in an interview or news conference that corrupts the channels of government?

Many public relations practitioners find themselves forced to respond to questions like these. Two broad theories of ethical choice are the teleological or utilitarian theory and deontological or duty theory. Teleological ethics favors making decisions that maximize benefits and minimize harms. Deontological ethical choices respect everyone’s rights; therefore, “the ends cannot be used to justify the means.”20 Another ethical framework that reflects the role of persuasion or advocacy is suggested in table 4.1. By considering their ethical standards, practitioners can avoid difficult situations that may harm their individual reputations. Unfortunately, most ethical decisions are not black or white. When obligations to stakeholders collide over an ethical issue, the practitioner must decide whose claim is most important or entails the least harm to the fewest people. Thus, when the employer’s policies are different from those of the profession or the dictates of individual conscience, which would take precedence?

Business Ethics As controversial as the question of individual ethics is, so is the general issue of business ethics. It is relatively easy to agree in abstract terms that individual professionals have a duty to behave ethically. Unfortunately, translating abstract concepts into ethical standards for business practice in a competitive environment has not been so easy. Some practitioners have been arbitrarily ﬁred for refusing to write news releases they thought would be false or misleading. One practitioner worked for a company that wanted him to prepare and distribute a release listing company clients before the clients had signed contracts for services. When he refused to prepare the release, this practitioner was ﬁred and subsequently sued the company for unlawful dismissal, receiving almost $100,000 in an out-of-court settlement. Another public relations practitioner resigned after initially participating in several ethically questionable practices with a multinational

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TABLE 4.1

10 Criteria for Ethically Desirable Public Relations Advocacy

Ethically Desirable Criterion

Definition

1. Evaluation

Detached or objective evaluation of the issue/client/organization before determining whether it merits public relations advocacy.

2. Priority

Once the public relations practitioner has assumed the role of the advocate, the interests of the client or organization are valued above those of others involved in the public debate.

3. Sensitivity

Balancing of client priority on the one hand with social responsibility on the other.

4. Confidentiality

Protection of the client’s or organization’s rights to confidentiality and secrecy on matters for which secrets are morally justified.

5. Veracity

Full truthfulness in all matters; deception or evasion can be considered morally acceptable only under exceptional circ*mstances when all truthful possibilities have been ruled out.

6. Reversibility

If the situation were reversed, the advocate/client/organization would be satisfied that it had sufficient information to make an informed decision.

7. Validity

All communications on behalf of the client or organization are defensible against attacks on their validity.

8. Visibility

Clear identification of all communications on behalf of the client or organization as originating from that source.

9. Respect

Regard for audiences as autonomous individuals with rights to make informed choices and to have informed participation in decisions that affect them; willingness to promote dialogue over monologue.

10. Consent

Communication on behalf of the client or organization is carried out only under conditions to which it can be assumed all parties consent.

Source: Ruth Edgett, “Toward an Ethical Framework for Advocacy in Public Relations,” Journal of Public Relations Research 14 (2002), p. 22.

fruit conglomerate. He charged the company with manipulation of press coverage as well as with political and military action involving a Latin American country in which the company was operating. The increased attention of many organizations to ethical dimensions of operating can be traced back to the 1968 Watergate investigation. President Richard Nixon resigned rather than face impeachment charges because of a bungled break-in at Democratic campaign headquarters and subsequent revelations of unethical campaign practices, cover-ups, and secret tapings of White House meetings. Other indelible examples of ethical controversy that add to public skepticism of public relations include Firestone Tire, a corporation that has not yet admitted responsibility for the highway deaths linked to its tires. co*ke maintains that its European distributions had no responsibility in the contamination of its product that led to schoolchildren reporting that they became ill from drinking co*ke products, although

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Chapter 4 • Law and Ethics

co*ke attempted to make amends by offering free co*ke products. BP had a “culture of complacency,” according to the presidential commission investigating the worst oil spill in U.S. history that occurred in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010. The panel suggested that BP’s leaders didn’t take risks seriously enough. When public relations practitioners participate in organizational decisions, they bear a heavy ethical responsibility—not only to themselves and their organizations but also to their profession and the public. They must weigh all these considerations when helping to make organizational decisions and communicate decisions once they are made. Professional codes, corporate policy, and even law cannot ensure the ethical practice of any profession; only the application of sound personal values can guarantee ethical behavior. Nevertheless, professional codes, sound business policies, and appropriate legislation can serve as valuable guidelines for public relations practitioners who desire to maintain high ethical standards.

Establishing Standards for a Developing Profession For any occupation to become a profession, it must meet four criteria: (1) expertise, (2) autonomy, (3) commitment, and (4) responsibility.21 Expertise comprises the specialized knowledge and skill that are vital requirements for the profession to perform its function in society. Autonomy allows the practitioner to practice without outside interference. Commitment, the outcome of expertise, implies devotion to the pursuit of excellence without emphasis on the rewards of the profession. Finally, responsibility means the power conferred by expertise entails a trust relationship with the practitioner’s stakeholder groups. Though all four criteria are important, the last one, responsibility, is operationalized through codes of ethics, professional organizations, and licensure. Thus, to be considered fully professionalized, an occupation needs a well-developed and well-enforced code of ethics, active professional associations, and some means of controlling the practice. It is the licensure issue that continues to prevent public relations from being a fully professional occupation.

The PRSA Code The ethics code of the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) is the most detailed and comprehensive in the ﬁeld of public relations, although it is strictly voluntary and not legally binding (see spotlight 4.2). When PRSA was founded in 1948, one of its actions was to develop a code of ethics so members would have some common behavioral guidelines, and managers would have a clear understanding of their standards. This code became the tool used to distinguish professionals in public relations from shady promoters and publicists who have been quick to appropriate the term public relations to describe their activities. The most recent PRSA Code revisions, approved in 2000, changed dramatically how PRSA intended to think about and educate public relations professionals about ethics. First, the PRSA Code eliminated an emphasis on enforcement of standards based on members coming forward to lodge complaints or identify others in violation of the Code, although the PRSA board of directors retained the right to bar individuals from membership or expel individuals from the society. Second, the PRSA Code focused on universal values that inspire ethical behavior or performance. Third, the PRSA Code provided illustrations to help practitioners better practice important ethical and principled business objectives.

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Spotlight 4.2 A Message from the PRSA Board of Ethics and Professional Standards Our Primary Obligation The primary obligation of membership in the Public Relations Society of America is the ethical practice of Public Relations. The PRSA Member Code of Ethics is the way each member of our Society can daily reaffirm a commitment to ethical professional activities and decisions. • The Code sets forth the principles and standards that guide our decisions and actions. • The Code solidly connects our values and our ideals to the work each of us does every day. • The Code is about what we should do, and why we should do it. The Code is also meant to be a living, growing body of knowledge, precedent, and experience. It should stimulate our thinking and encourage us to seek guidance and clarification when we have questions about principles, practices, and standards of conduct. Every member’s involvement in preserving and enhancing ethical standards is essential to building and maintaining the respect and credibility of our profession. Using our values, principles, standards of conduct, and commitment as a foundation, and continuing to work together on ethical issues, we ensure that the Public Relations Society of America fulfills its obligation to build and maintain the framework for public dialogue that deserves the public’s trust and support. Preamble Public Relations Society of America Member Code of Ethics 2000 • Professional Values • Principles of Conduct • Commitment and Compliance This Code applies to PRSA members. The Code is designed to be a useful guide for PRSA members as they carry out their ethical responsibilities. This document is designed to anticipate and accommodate, by

PRSA Code of Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations

precedent, ethical challenges that may arise. The scenarios outlined in the Code provision are actual examples of misconduct. More will be added as experience with the Code occurs. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) is committed to ethical practices. The level of public trust PRSA members seek, as we serve the public good, means we have taken on a special obligation to operate ethically. The value of member reputation depends upon the ethical conduct of everyone affiliated with the Public Relations Society of America. Each of us sets an example for each other—as well as other professionals—by our pursuit of excellence with powerful standards of performance, professionalism, and ethical conduct. Emphasis on enforcement of the Code has been eliminated. But the PRSA Board of Directors retains the right to bar from membership or expel from the Society any individual who has been or is sanctioned by a government agency or convicted in a court of law of an action that is in violation of this Code. Ethical practice is the most important obligation of a PRSA member. We view the Member Code of Ethics as a model for other professions, organizations, and professionals. PRSA Member Statement of Professional Values This statement presents the core values of PRSA members and, more broadly, of the public relations profession. These values provide the foundation for the Member Code of Ethics and set the industry standard for the professional practice of public relations. These values are the fundamental beliefs that guide our behaviors and decision-making process. We believe our professional values are vital to the integrity of the profession as a whole. Advocacy • We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent. • We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.

Honesty • We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in advancing the interests of those we represent and in communicating with the public. Expertise • We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience. • We advance the profession through continued professional development, research, and education. • We build mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences. Independence • We provide objective counsel to those we represent. • We are accountable for our actions. Loyalty • We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest. Fairness • We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, and the general public. • We respect all opinions and support the right of free expression. PRSA Code Provisions Free Flow of Information Core Principle Protecting and advancing the free flow of accurate and truthful information is essential to serving the public interest and contributing to informed decision making in a democratic society. Intent • To maintain the integrity of relationships with the media, government officials, and the public. • To aid informed decision making.

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Guidelines A member shall • Preserve the integrity of the process of communication. • Be honest and accurate in all communications. • Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the practitioner is responsible. • Preserve the free flow of unprejudiced information when giving or receiving gifts by ensuring that gifts are nominal, legal, and infrequent. Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision • A member representing a ski manufacturer gives a pair of expensive racing skis to a sports magazine columnist, to influence the columnist to write favorable articles about the product. • A member entertains a government official beyond legal limits and/or in violation of government reporting requirements. Competition Core Principle Promoting healthy and fair competition among professionals preserves an ethical climate while fostering a robust business environment. Intent • To promote respect and fair competition among public relations professionals. • To serve the public interest by providing the widest choice of practitioner options. Guidelines A member shall • Follow ethical hiring practices designed to respect free and open competition without deliberately undermining a competitor. • Preserve intellectual property rights in the marketplace. Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision • A member employed by a “client organization” shares helpful information with a counseling firm that is competing with others for the organization’s business. • A member spreads malicious and unfounded rumors about a com-

petitor in order to alienate the competitor’s clients and employees in a ploy to recruit people and business. Disclosure of Information Core Principle Open communication fosters informed decision making in a democratic society. Intent • To build trust with the public by revealing all information needed for responsible decision making. Guidelines A member shall • Be honest and accurate in all communications. • Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the member is responsible. • Investigate the truthfulness and accuracy of information released on behalf of those represented. • Reveal the sponsors for causes and interests represented. • Disclose financial interest (such as stock ownership) in a client’s organization. • Avoid deceptive practices. Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision • Front groups: A member implements “grass roots” campaigns or letter-writing campaigns to legislators on behalf of undisclosed interest groups. • Lying by omission: A practitioner for a corporation knowingly fails to release financial information, giving a misleading impression of the corporation’s performance. • A member discovers inaccurate information disseminated via a Web site or media kit and does not correct the information. • A member deceives the public by employing people to pose as volunteers to speak at public hearings and participate in “grass roots” campaigns. Safeguarding Confidences Core Principle Client trust requires appropriate protection of confidential and private information.

Intent • To protect the privacy rights of clients, organizations, and individuals by safeguarding confidential information. Guidelines A member shall • Safeguard the confidences and privacy rights of present, former, and prospective clients and employees. • Protect privileged, confidential, or insider information gained from a client or organization. • Immediately advise an appropriate authority if a member discovers that confidential information is being divulged by an employee of a client company or organization. Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision • A member changes jobs, takes confidential information, and uses that information in the new position to the detriment of the former employer. • A member intentionally leaks proprietary information to the detriment of some other party. Conflicts of Interest Core Principle Avoiding real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest builds the trust of clients, employers, and the publics. Intent • To earn trust and mutual respect with clients or employers. • To build trust with the public by avoiding or ending situations that put one’s personal or professional interests in conflict with society’s interests. Guidelines A member shall • Act in the best interests of the client or employer, even subordinating the member’s personal interests. • Avoid actions and circ*mstances that may appear to compromise good business judgment or create a conflict between personal and professional interests. • Disclose promptly any existing or potential conflict of interest to affected clients or organizations. (Continued )

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• Encourage clients and customers to determine if a conflict exists after notifying all affected parties. Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision • The member fails to disclose that he or she has a strong financial interest in a client’s chief competitor. • The member represents a “competitor company” or a “conflicting interest” without informing a prospective client. Enhancing the Profession Core Principle Public relations professionals work constantly to strengthen the public’s trust in the profession. Intent • To build respect and credibility with the public for the profession of public relations.

• To improve, adapt, and expand professional practices. Guidelines A member shall • Acknowledge that there is an obligation to protect and enhance the profession. • Keep informed and educated about practices in the profession to ensure ethical conduct. • Actively pursue personal professional development. • Decline representation of clients or organizations that urge or require actions contrary to this Code. • Accurately define what public relations activities can accomplish. • Counsel subordinates in proper ethical decision making. • Require that subordinates adhere to the ethical requirements of the Code.

• Report ethical violations, whether committed by PRSA members or not, to the appropriate authority. Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision • A PRSA member declares publicly that a product the client sells is safe, without disclosing evidence to the contrary. • A member initially assigns some questionable client work to a nonmember practitioner to avoid the ethical obligation of PRSA membership [www.prsa.org].

The IABC Code The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC), with approximately 19,000 members, also has a widely used code of ethics (see spotlight 4.3). This code differs from that of the PRSA in only a few ways. It seems to focus more on the worth of human beings in the many cultures of the world and to be sensitive to other cultural values and beliefs. It gives a more limited list of standards and does not try to spell out values that have led to the formally listed standards. Both codes are voluntary, but members are required to sign that they have read and are willing to abide by the codes.

The Question of Licensure Some believe that codes of behavior are only part of what is needed to build professional status for the field of public relations. Controlled access is the hallmark of a recognized profession. Therefore, controlled access, through licensure, to the title of “certified public relations counsel” is viewed as the only way to separate the frauds and flacks from legitimate practitioners. Proponents such as Edward L. Bernays, who was instrumental in formulating the modern concept of public relations, believed that licensing could protect the profession and the public from incompetent and unscrupulous practitioners. Those who would argue for licensure see it as the only effective method of enforcing professional standards, but efforts to impose such standards are highly controversial. Even if licensure were implemented, many practitioners would probably not be affected because they work in corporate departments. There would also have to be a compelling interest on the part of state governments to regulate the practice of public relations with a state agency. Both PRSA and IABC offer accreditation programs for experienced practitioners who pass a comprehensive examination. These programs are the closest existing approximation to licensing procedures. However, fewer than half the memberships of both associations are accredited. Despite efforts by PRSA, few people outside the profession have any notion of the accreditation process and what it means. 88

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IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators

Preface Because hundreds of thousands of business communicators worldwide engage in activities that affect the lives of millions of people, and because this power carries with it significant social responsibilities, the International Association of Business Communicators developed the Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators. The Code is based on three different yet interrelated principles of professional communication that apply throughout the world. These principles assume that just societies are governed by a profound respect for human rights and the rule of law; that ethics, the criteria for determining what is right and wrong, can be agreed upon by members of an organization; and, that understanding matters of taste requires sensitivity to cultural norms. These principles are essential: Professional communication is legal. Professional communication is ethical. Professional communication is in good taste. Recognizing these principles, members of IABC will engage in communication that is not only legal but also ethical and sensitive to cultural values and beliefs; engage in truthful, accurate and fair communication that facilitates respect and mutual understanding; and, adhere to the following articles of the IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators. Because conditions in the world are constantly changing, members of IABC will work to improve their individual competence and to increase the body of knowledge in the field with research and education. Articles 1. Professional communicators uphold the credibility and dignity of their profession by practicing honest, candid and timely communication and by fostering the free flow of essential information in accord with the public interest. 2. Professional communicators disseminate accurate information

10.

11.

12.

Spotlight 4.3

and promptly correct any erroneous communication for which they may be responsible. Professional communicators understand and support the principles of free speech, freedom of assembly, and access to an open marketplace of ideas; and act accordingly. Professional communicators are sensitive to cultural values and beliefs and engage in fair and balanced communication activities that foster and encourage mutual understanding. Professional communicators refrain from taking part in any undertaking which the communicator considers to be unethical. Professional communicators obey laws and public policies governing their professional activities and are sensitive to the spirit of all laws and regulations and, should any law or public policy be violated, for whatever reason, act promptly to correct the situation. Professional communicators give credit for unique expressions borrowed from others and identify the sources and purposes of all information disseminated to the public. Professional communicators protect confidential information and, at the same time, comply with all legal requirements for the disclosure of information affecting the welfare of others. Professional communicators do not use confidential information gained as a result of professional activities for personal benefit and do not represent conflicting or competing interests without written consent of those involved. Professional communicators do not accept undisclosed gifts or payments for professional services from anyone other than a client or employer. Professional communicators do not guarantee results that are beyond the power of the practitioner to deliver. Professional communicators are honest not only with others but

also, and most importantly, with themselves as individuals; for a professional communicator seeks the truth and speaks that truth first to the self. Enforcement and Communication of the IABC Code for Professional Communicators IABC fosters compliance with its Code by engaging in global communication campaigns rather than through negative sanctions. However, in keeping with the sixth article of the IABC Code, members of IABC who are found guilty by an appropriate governmental agency or judicial body of violating laws and public policies governing their professional activities may have their membership terminated by the IABC executive board following procedures set forth in the association’s bylaws. IABC encourages the widest possible communication about its Code. The IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators is published in several languages and is freely available to all: Permission is hereby granted to any individual or organization wishing to copy and incorporate all or part of the IABC Code into personal and corporate codes, with the understanding that appropriate credit be given to IABC in any publication of such codes. The IABC Code is published in the association’s annual directory, The World Book of IABC Communicators. The association’s monthly magazine, Communication World, publishes periodic articles dealing with ethical issues. At least one session at the association’s annual conference is devoted to ethics. The international headquarters of IABC, through its professional development activities, encourages and supports efforts by IABC student chapters, professional chapters, and districts/regions to conduct meetings and workshops devoted to the topic of ethics and the IABC Code. New and renewing members of IABC sign the following statement as part of their application: “I have reviewed and understand the IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators.” (Continued )

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As a service to communicators worldwide, inquiries about ethics and questions or comments about the IABC Code may be addressed to members of the IABC Ethics Committee. The IABC Ethics Committee is composed of at least three accredited members of IABC who serve staggered three-year terms. Other IABC members may serve on the commit-

tee with the approval of the IABC executive committee. The functions of the Ethics Committee are to assist with professional development activities dealing with ethics and to offer advice and assistance to individual communicators regarding specific ethical situations. While discretion will be used in handling all inquiries about ethics,

absolute confidentiality cannot be guaranteed. Those wishing more information about the IABC Code or specific advice about ethics are encouraged to contact IABC World Headquarters (One Hallidie Plaza, Suite 600, San Francisco, CA 94102 USA; phone, 415-544-4700; fax, 415-544-4747) [www.iabc.com].

JetBlue Faces Legal and Ethical Dilemmas with Its Exiting Flight Attendant

Case Study

n August 9, 2010, Steven Slater, a longtime flight attendant on JetBlue Airways, became something of a folk hero when he grabbed a beer and exited his plane on an inflatable emergency chute at the JFK Airport Terminal in New York. According to his lawyer, Slater had come to assist a woman passenger who was attempting to put her carry-on bag in an crowded overhead compartment. She started cursing and hit Slater in the head with the overhead bin door. Who instigated the fight is unknown, but Slater pleaded “not guilty” to reckless endangerment and criminal mischief while JetBlue removed Slater from duty after an internal investigation. Slater’s act achieved “instant fame” because of “the difficulties of flying today, a symbol of the dislocations in the workplace caused by the economy.” It was a matter of minutes before the mainstream media and social media platforms responded to a “sure-selling pop culture news item.” For some, Slater’s “take your job and shove it” action was a celebratory act much to be admired. For others, Slater’s action damaged JetBlue’s highly regarded reputation. Michael Cherenson, past president of the Public Relations Society of America, described JetBlue’s dilemmas as consisting of “prudent consideration of safety, legal and/or fiscal responsibilities, and mainstays of sustaining reputation.” JetBlue seemed stunned by the incident, choosing to say nothing of the matter for the first 48 hours, although JetBlue has been known for “skilling cultivating the public through social media like blogs, Facebook and Twitter.” Two days later, JetBlue did dispense $100 vouchers to passengers who had been on the plane and reported on its blog: “While we can’t discuss the details of what is an ongoing investigation, plenty of others have already formed opinions on the matter. Like the entire Internet.” JetBlue also blogged praise for “2,300 fantastic, awesome and professional Inflight Crewmembers.”

Sources: “JetBlue’s Response to a Fed-Up Employee’s Exit,” The New York Times, August 11, 2010; Michael Cherenson, “Putting JetBlue in the Pilot’s Seat,” PRSAY What Do You Have to Say? August 12, 2010; JetBlue Pokes Fun at Itself over Runaway Flight Attendant, CNN.com.

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Chapter 4 • Law and Ethics

Questions 1. In reviewing this case as a public relations practitioner, identify the legal and ethical dilemmas that JetBlue faced in seeking to maintain relationships with key publics. 2. Do you think that JetBlue chose the right legal responses to the incident? Why or why not? 3. Do you think that JetBlue chose the right ethical responses to the incident? Why or why not? 4. What other ethical advice would you give to JetBlue to protect its reputation?

The issue of ethical practice in public relations is closely tied to efforts toward accreditation and licensure. By promoting professional responsibility and recognition, public relations organizations can encourage ethical behavior and awareness among their members.

Summary For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

appropriation civil libel code of ethics commercial speech contract copyright criminal libel defamation fair comment fair use false light Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Federal Trade Commission (FTC) First Amendment Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Form 10-K, Form 10-Q, and Form 8-K Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

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intrusion invasion of privacy libel licensure malice National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) privacy rights privilege product liability publication of private information regulations Sarbanes-Oxley Act Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) slander Sunshine Act trademark USA Patriot Act written consent

Key Terms

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Part I • The Profession 1. Burt Helm, “A Google Project Pains Publishers,” BusinessWeek Online (May 23, 2005) at www.businessweek.com/ technology/content/may2005/ tc20050523_9472_tc024 .htm?campaign_id=search.

Notes

14. P. H. Lewis, “Judge Allows Libel Lawsuit Against Prodigy to Proceed,” The New York Times, May 24, 1995, p. D4.

2. Kathy R. Fitzpatrick, “Public Relations and the Law: A Survey of Practitioners,” Public Relations Review 22, no. 1 (1996), p. 1.

15. “Lessons from the Ultimate Crisis: Dow Corning in the Crucible,” The Strategist 3, no. 1 (Spring 1997), pp. 6–12.

3. Roy L. Moore, Ronald T. Farrar, and Erik L. Collins, Advertising and the Law (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1998), p. 50.

16. Moore, Farrar, and Collins, Advertising and the Law, p. 174.

4. Ibid., p. 52. 5. Ibid., p. 26. 6. Kyu Ho Youm, “Libel: The Plaintiff’s Case,” in Communication and the Law, ed. W. Wat Hopkins (Northport, AL: Vision Press, 2001), p. 88. 7. Ibid. 8. Moore, Farrar, and Collins, Advertising and the Law, p. 189. 9. Section 315a, Federal Communications Act. 10. Greg Lisby, “Regulating the Practice of Public Relations,” in Communication and the Law, ed. W. Wat Hopkins (Northport, AL: Vision Press, 2001), p. 167. 11. J. Edward Conrey, Gerald R. Ferrer, and Karla H. Fox, The Legal Environment of Business (Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1986), p. 197. 12. R. Penchina, “Venturing On-Line: Protecting You and Your Product in Cyberspace,” Editor and Publisher (June 24, 1995), p. 122.

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13. “Halting Highway Robbery on the Internet,” BusinessWeek, October 17, 1994, p. 212.

17. Larissa A. Grunig, “Toward a Philosophy of Public Relations,” in Rhetorical and Critical Approaches to Public Relations, ed. Elizabeth L. Toth and Robert L. Heath (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1992), p. 79. 18. Allen Center and Patrick Jackson, Public Relations Practices: Managerial Case Studies and Problems, 5th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995), p. 476. 19. James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt, Managing Public Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1984), p. 72. 20. Philip Seib and Kathy Fitzpatrick, Public Relations Ethics (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1995), p. 12. 21. Dan Lattimore, “Professionalism and Performance: An Investigation of Colorado Daily Newsmen,” PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972; Blaine McKee, Oguz Nayman, and Dan Lattimore, “How PR People See Themselves,” Public Relations Journal 31 (November 1975), pp. 47–60.

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P A R T

T W O

The Process I

t isn’t enough to know what public

relations is and what purposes it serves.

PREVIEW

To practice public relations, one must understand the process by which public relations operates. As we have already discussed, public relations goes far beyond the task of producing messages. An effective public relations effort is the result of mutual understanding between an organization and its publics. The development of this understanding can be regarded as a four-step process: 1 Research An initial fact-finding stage defines the problem areas and differentiates between publics. 2 Planning Once the facts have been gathered from the various publics, decisions must be made regarding their importance and potential impact on the organization. After these decisions are made, strategies must be developed to enable the organization to achieve its goals.

These four steps are essential to any effective public relations campaign. They are not, however, four independent functions. Each step overlaps the others; if any one of them is neglected, the entire process will be affected. The next four chapters discuss each of these steps in detail. To help you keep in mind the inter-

3 Action and Communication Strategies are implemented as new organizational policies and/or projects. Messages are then constructed to reach target publics.

dependence of the steps, an integrating case study

4 Evaluation Once a public relations campaign is developed and implemented, it should be followed by an evaluation of its effectiveness in meeting the criteria that were set. The results of the evaluation are used both to assess the effectiveness of the effort and to plan future action.

subsequent chapters, illustrates a complete public re-

will open each chapter. The case of Cedar Springs Community Hospital, presented in chapter 5 and

lations project as it progresses through each stage, from research through evaluation. You may find it useful to turn back and review the previous case segments as you read through the next four chapters. 93

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C H A P T E R

Research: Understanding Public Opinion OUTLINE PREVIEW THE NEED FOR RESEARCH IN PUBLIC RELATIONS Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 1 PROVING THE WORTH OF PUBLIC RELATIONS Preliminary Research Techniques Formal, Scientific Research Techniques Collecting Formal Research Data MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION Mass Opinion Public Opinion Identifying Publics Environmental Monitoring SPECIAL PUBLIC REL ATIONS RESEARCH TECHNIQUES The Public Relations Audit Organizational Image Surveys Communication Audits Usability Research Social Audits CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES

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PREVIEW

risten and Amy were searching for holiday outfits at the mall. Kristen looked across a rack of glittery T-shirts and raised her eyebrows at Amy, who shook her head. Everything that

looked good was too expensive. The two friends left the store and went back to the mall’s central aisle, where they stood fiddling with their cell phones and wondering what to do next. “Excuse me,” said a stylish-looking young woman with a pad and pen. “I’m Kara, and this is my colleague Rico. We’re working with a company that wants to open a new store in the mall, and our job is to get some information from teens who are into cool clothes. Mind if we ask you some questions?” Kristen and Amy agreed to the interview and spent the next few minutes answering Rico’s and Kara’s questions about their preferred style, the outfits they wore, and how they dressed for different occasions, like school, parties, and hanging out. After getting the girls’ opinions on a few photographs of clothing styles, Rico and Kara thanked them and gave them a couple of coupons for free iced coffees in the food court.

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Part II • The Process

Research is a vital function in the process of public relations. It provides the initial information necessary to plan public relations action and perform the important role of evaluating its effectiveness. Management demands hard facts, not intuition or guesswork. Public relations practitioners, like their colleagues in every area of management, must be able to demonstrate convincingly their ability to “add value” in producing a product or service. The economic realities of modern organizations make it necessary for public relations to incorporate data-gathering techniques into every phase of the process. One speciﬁc major use of public relations research is in issues management. The process of issues management, which has become a major part of public relations practice, must be informed at every stage by research data. The early identiﬁcation of issues that may impact a client or organization is most thoroughly accomplished through research methods designed to scan the environment for potential issues. Analysis to determine which issues have the greatest possible impact requires various research methods designed to determine both the strength of opinion about an issue and its perceived centrality to the client or organization. Likewise, the selection of potential methods and actions available to the researcher and the evaluation of action implementation can be determined through well-planned research activities. The Cedar Springs Hospital case study shows how a public relations effort can utilize research in identifying and dealing with an organizational problem.

THE NEED FOR RESEARCH IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Integrating Case Study

Cedar Springs Community Hospital Segment 1

Problem Identification

edar Springs Community Hospital, Inc., was formed by the merger of competing hospitals. Two years later, a new management team was brought in to help resolve concerns about the ability of the newly formed hospital to serve the needs of its patients. Soon after the new administrator and his seven assistants assumed their duties, they began to hear reports of low employee morale and declining quality in patient care. Much of this input came from physicians who felt that the changes since the merger had produced an environment that was more routine and less personal. Many doctors felt that their relationships with other hospital employees had been undermined by the new organization’s attempts to eliminate duplication and build a more efficient structure. In general, the growing consensus among the physicians was that the quality of patient care had significantly declined since the merger.

Secondary Research Because physicians are a significant public for any hospital, their concerns received immediate attention from management. The physicians had suggested mounting a campaign to make employees more aware of their responsibility for providing quality patient care. However, the public relations director thought that more information was needed in the form of secondary research (research already done by someone else) before an effective communication campaign could be planned. He began to look into the background of the merger and the relationships between hospital employees and the medical staff.

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Chapter 5 • Research: Understanding Public Opinion

A careful review of hospital records and local newspaper files, plus conversations with several longtime employees, revealed the complexity of the situation. Not only had the hospitals formerly been competitors, but they had also originally been founded by two very different religious groups and thus had developed two distinct constituencies. Although the religious affiliations of both hospitals had been discontinued long before the merger, an atmosphere of rivalry remained. This rivalry had been most obvious when the hospitals had attempted to outdo each other in terms of benefits for physicians.

Primary Research One important public, physicians, clearly believed the quality of patient care was not acceptable. However, employees’ and patients’ views were not as easily defined. The public relations department devised a primary research plan (original research) to measure the opinions of each group. A random sample of hospital employees was asked to fill out a questionnaire about various aspects of patient care. Simultaneously, a telephone survey was conducted among recently released patients to gauge their opinions on the same issues. The results were surprising. On a scale ranging from 1 (poor) to 10 (excellent), employees rated the hospital’s performance a disappointing 6.6 overall. However, the survey of former patients produced an overall rating of 8.5. Other questions related to the quality of patient care also received significantly lower marks from the employees than from the patients.

Informal Research To understand the reasons for the low ratings given by employees, a focus group was assembled to respond to the survey findings. This 10-member focus group was composed of six representatives from nursing services and two each from ancillary support and business services. They were interviewed as a group concerning their responses to the questionnaire. The interview revealed that while employees believed that the hospital in general delivered mediocre patient care, they thought that the care in their specific areas was significantly better than in the rest of the hospital and that they, personally, were slightly above average within their departments. These employees also indicated that their co-workers sensed something was wrong in the organization but were not sure what. This led to feelings of individual helplessness and produced a high level of stress and frustration. In the Cedar Springs case, what originally seemed like a rather straightforward employee communication problem was identified as a complex situation involving three important publics: physicians, employees, and patients. Research showed the physicians’ concerns were overblown. Had the Cedar Springs management acted on the physicians’ original recommendation without doing further research, the situation would have just gotten worse, increasing employee frustration and stress. As you read about the different types of research methods public relations practitioners use, refer to this segment and notice how several of the techniques were applied. A quick comparison of the Cedar Springs case with the first step in figure 5.1 will reveal that each of the basic elements of research is present. The surprising nature of the findings in this case illustrates the need for public relations research.

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Part II • The Process

Research Identification of publics and issues

Public relations needs

Information needs and sources defined

Information assembled for target publics

• Facts assembled • Publics sampled • Issues monitored

Planning Analysis of target publics Goals and objectives set

Action alternatives Strategic plans

Action • Open system response • Policy • Structure

Communication to target publics

• Closed system response • Campaigns • Projects

Evaluation

• Objectives • Strategies

Measurement techniques

Response

Results

FIGURE 5.1 A Process Model of Public Relations

Because public relations professionals have traditionally been doers rather than researchers, they often assume that others see the value of their function. That assumption places public relations necks squarely on budgetary chopping blocks. Even when economic conditions are not critical, public relations may be perceived as window dressing. Media, regulatory agencies, consumer groups, and many managers doubt that public relations has a useful purpose in American business. Typically, public relations professionals respond by claiming that they contribute to better understanding between publics and organizations, but they do not present tangible evidence of this contribution. However, the element that makes the most difference in whether a public relations campaign will be effective is research. For example, one campaign where research made a

PROVING THE WORTH OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

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Chapter 5 • Research: Understanding Public Opinion

difference was the Colorado “bottle bill” referendum. In a public relations campaign to defeat a “bottle bill” where consumers could return a can or bottle for five cents to the bottler, public relations counselor Nick Del Calzo did extensive research to determine what strategies and tactics would persuade his target audiences to vote “No” on the bill. From his research with target audiences, Mr. Del Calzo developed a campaign around the theme “Right Problem: Wrong Solution.” He used Will Rogers Jr., as his spokesperson to get the message across that the best approach to the litter problem was a tough litter law, not a bottle return law. Thus, while litter was the “right problem,” a bottle bill was the “wrong solution.” Even though six weeks prior to the November ballot, the Denver Post editorialized that the bottle bill would pass 2 to 1, Del Calzo was sure his research, which showed his campaign would defeat the bill, was accurate. It was. The referendum was defeated by better than a 2 to 1 margin just as his research had indicated. As a good, ethical public relations practitioner, Del Calzo led the fight the next January in the Colorado legislature to get a tough litter law passed.1 Public relations practitioners must speak with authority when asked to prove their value to business and society. This authority can come only through an ability to conduct research and apply the results to public relations campaigns. Public relations professionals must maintain good media relations, produce employee publications, release financial information, and conduct community relations programs. In addition, those who succeed must also be able to measure the effects of their programs, provide sound forecasts of future needs, and account for the resources they consume. Simply counting the number of column inches of print or the number of hits on a Web site is not enough. An independent public relations counselor was seeking a new client. “What can you do for me?” asked the client. “I can get you exposure,” explained the public relations practitioner. “I can get you speaking dates and get you in the newspaper.” “I can do that,” said the client (who was rapidly becoming a less likely client). “What I need is someone to help me make money.” “That’s marketing,” said the public relations counselor. “I do public relations.” “You do nothing if you don’t contribute to my bottom line,” was the response. “All my expenditures make me money or they don’t get made. No sale.”

Preliminary Research Techniques Research means gathering information, and it is typically classified as either formal or informal.2 Research can range from looking up the names of editors of weekly newspapers in Nebraska to polling those people to discover their opinions about farm export policy. Research is not always scientific or highly structured. We begin this section by considering a few nonscientific research methods and sources that practitioners use. Informal research is a method of gaining an in-depth understanding of an audience without the rigor of more formal, scientific research methods. It is also called preliminary research because it is nonscientific and often done as background research. Record Keeping One of the most important skills necessary to the successful practice of public relations is the ability to keep comprehensive and accurate records. Practitioners are frequently asked to produce critical information at a moment’s notice for use inside and outside their organizations. Thus, when an editor or manager calls for information, the public relations practitioner must produce the needed data within

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a relatively short time or suffer loss of credibility. By earning a reputation as a source of valuable information, the public relations practitioner can develop a network of internal and external information contacts. Current technology allows for the organization and storage of large amounts of information in databases. This has raised expectations about the amount of information that can be provided in a very short time frame. Public relations practitioners must be comfortable using this technology and know where to find important information, particularly from within the organization. However, the GIGO principle still applies— Garbage In, Garbage Out. Creators of these databases need to think about what information will be needed, and in what form, when the information is created and stored in the first place. Key Contacts Frequently, individuals who are opinion leaders in the community, industry, or organization act as key contacts for the public relations practitioner. Other people who possess special knowledge or who communicate frequently with significant publics are also good sources. For a community college, for example, key contacts would be significant business, political, student, and community leaders. Although these individuals can provide valuable information, they may not represent the majority opinion. Because they are leaders or individuals with special knowledge, they must be regarded as atypical of others in their group. Their special insight may give them a greater sensitivity to an issue than most other people would have. Therefore, the practitioner must be careful not to overreact to feedback from these sources or plan major responses based solely on such information. Key contacts are best used to provide early warning about issues that may become significant. Special Committees To help obtain necessary information, many public relations practitioners organize special committees. Internal and external committees of key communicators, decision makers, and opinion leaders can help identify issues before they become problems and suggest alternative courses of action. These advisory groups can be formed for a specified length of time, such as the duration of a campaign, or can be permanent boards that replace members periodically. Focus Groups The most widely used technique for preliminary research is the focus group. As we saw in the Cedar Springs case, a focus group is a small number of people who share some demographic characteristic. Group members are interviewed, using open-ended questions to encourage interaction and probe the nature of their beliefs. A focus group is generally assembled only once, and the participants’ responses are recorded on videotape or observed from behind a one-way mirror. This enables researchers to consider not only what is said but also gestures, facial expressions, and other forms of nonverbal communication that may reveal depth of meaning. Although ethical and legal considerations require researchers to inform focus groups that they are being recorded or observed, experience shows that participants are seldom reluctant to discuss their feelings. Frequently, people selected for focus groups are glad someone is willing to listen to them. Sometimes the process of asking can be just as valuable as the information gained because the organization is perceived as being responsive to its publics. Focus groups may be used as the only primary research tool. However, since you can’t generalize the information to the larger group from which the focus group is drawn, it may not provide enough reliable information. Often, though, focus groups are used prior to survey research to help the researcher have enough information to ask appropriate questions in the survey questionnaire.

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Researchers observe a focus group. It is also being videotaped for future reference.

For example, Mountain Bell used several focus groups of women ages 18 to 35 before launching its “Let’s Be Friends” campaign. Three 30-second commercials had been produced. Before they were aired, they were shown to several focus groups. Two of the commercials were seen to be quite effective, but one was discarded even though the company had already spent thousands of dollars producing the spot. The campaign became one of the longest-running campaigns at Mountain Bell and later was picked up by other former AT&T companies. In another example, Larissa A. Grunig reported on the use of focus groups to help plan a program for a county mental health department to reduce the stigma existing in the community regarding chronic mental illness. In addition to focus groups, a larger sample-size telephone survey of county residents was conducted. According to the departmental administrator, however, results of the phone survey provided fewer and more shallow responses for designing the subsequent communication campaign. Focus groups allowed researchers to discuss why residents felt the way they did, whereas the survey did not.3 Thus, focus groups can also be used after a survey to probe some of the issues in more depth. For instance, prior to a campaign to increase student use of off-campus sites for taking classes, a university surveyed the students currently taking off-campus classes. One demographic stood out: 75 percent of all students taking classes off campus were female, compared with the roughly 52 percent female students overall at the university. Several focus groups of female students were then asked to talk about why they chose to take the off-campus classes. With few dissenting voices, the women felt that the off-campus sites were safer than the main campus at night, so they were more willing to take an off-campus class at night than one on campus. Casual Monitoring Many practitioners ﬁnd it helpful to systematically screen material that regularly comes through their ofﬁces. Monitoring news reports in both print and broadcast media should be done to allow consideration of the quality and quantity of coverage. The Internet must also be monitored closely. The ease and speed

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with which any kind of information can spread, including rumors and untruths, means that constant attention should be paid to what is being said about the organization and its industry. This includes monitoring chatrooms, newsgroups, and activist organizations’ Web sites. Carefully tracking incoming mail, telephone calls, and sales reports can also provide valuable information. Like all information collected through informal research methods, however, these techniques have built-in biases because the data are not collected from representative samples of the target publics. The Internet, Library, and Database Sources The Internet has revolutionized how people search for information. Some kinds of data must still be sought in books or in proprietary databases that are available only in public or company libraries, but large amounts of information are easily available via the Internet. Most companies now maintain a Web site that provides information about their business. State and city governments, as well as the federal government, maintain exhaustive databases. The same is true of the governments of many other countries. The use of a powerful search engine or directory such as Yahoo! can help locate information when the exact address is not known. Some data collections, however, are especially helpful to know about and bookmark. For example, the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis has a very comprehensive collection of economic data for the United States (www.stls.frb.org/research /index .html). In addition, the EDGAR database of documents ﬁled with the SEC can provide background information on publicly owned businesses (www.sec.gov/edgar.html). Public and private libraries are other sources of data that would be impossible for the practitioner to collect personally. Reference librarians are helpful in ﬁnding information, and many libraries now subscribe to computerized data retrieval networks that can obtain information from anywhere in the world, including data that are not available for free on the Internet. Census data and other types of public information are available at libraries that are designated as government depositories if you prefer researching hard copies instead of using a computer. In addition, a number of independent research organizations, such as the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan, publish information that may be valuable to the public relations practitioner. Media guides, trade and professional journals, and other reference books may prove useful in a public relations practitioner’s personal library. Many valuable guides that are too large and expensive for personal libraries can be accessed at a public library. Further sources that should be noted and can be valuable in researching a future employer or competing organization include the following: America’s Corporate Families, The Billion Dollar Directory Dun and Bradstreet Million Dollar Directory Dun and Bradstreet Middle Market Directory Hoover’s Handbook of World Business Moody’s International Manual D & B Principal International Businesses Standard and Poors’ Register of Corporations, Directors, and Executives Thomas’ Register of American Manufacturers Fortune Magazine’s “Directory of Largest Corporations” (also available online) Fortune Magazine’s “Annual Directory Issues” Black Enterprise Magazine’s “The Top 100”

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TABLE 5.1

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Research Techniques Respondents Claimed They Used Most Frequently

Literature searches/information retrieval

Pre- and posttests (before and after polls)

Publicity tracking

Sophisticated techniques (conjoint/factor analysis)

Web or e-mail surveys with simple cross-tabs

Psychographic analysis

Focus groups

Mall intercept/shopping center studies

PR/communications audits

Content analysis studies

Secondary analysis studies

Experimental designs

Consumer inquiry analysis Depth interviews with opinion leaders

Unobtrusive measures (role-playing, observation participation)

Readership/readability study

Model building

Formal, Scientific Research Techniques The growing importance of formal, or scientific, research in public relations has prompted several studies in recent years that attempt to assess preferred research techniques among professionals. In one such study, Walter K. Lindenmann sampled 253 practitioners, among them public relations executives from Fortune 500 companies, public relations agencies, nonprofit organizations, and academia. A summary of his findings is listed in table 5.1.4 As you read the next section, keep in mind that secondary sources like those mentioned in the table should be exhausted before a primary research effort is planned. Researchers should review the information available to make certain the questions to be asked have not already been answered by others. Content Analysis Content analysis is a research method that allows the researcher to systematically code and thereby quantify the verbal content of written or transcribed messages. This technique provides a method of systematic observation, such as the analysis of news clippings. The content of chatrooms or newsgroups can also be analyzed for quantity and quality of coverage. Many organizations analyze the contents of the annual reports and other publications of their competitors to discover strategic plans. Survey Research The practice of public relations employs all types of research processes, but the survey method is by far the most common. Cedar Springs Hospital used survey research to answer some critical questions. Laboratory and field experiments and various types of simulations can have a place (like pretesting a message) in a public relations research effort. However, surveys are the most effective way to assess the characteristics of publics in a form that allows the data to be used in planning and evaluating public relations efforts. Surveys should provide a means of separating publics rather than lumping them all together into one amorphous mass. The term survey, as it is applied in public relations research, refers to careful, detailed sample examinations of the knowledge, perception, attitudes, and opinions of members of various publics. The general purpose of a survey is to obtain a better understanding of the reactions and preferences of a specific public or publics. For public relations efforts, we divide survey data into two types: demographic and opinion. Demographic data are those characteristics (age, sex, occupation, etc.) of the people responding to the survey that help a practitioner classify them into one or more publics. Opinion data are

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Mini Case 5.1

● Part II • The Process

The Memphis PRSA research committee appointed to gather information concerning perceptions of Memphians to be used in developing its public relations plan presents this summary of its findings. A mail survey, developed and implemented by committee members in May and June, centered on several key topics, including education, entertainment, race, health care, government, and other quality-of-life issues. A random sample of 1,900 was selected from the Shelby County phone directory. About 227 of the questionnaires were returned because of incorrect mailing addresses, but 305 usable questionnaires were completed and returned in the one-shot mail survey. The respondents were more likely to be white and more likely to not live in one of the more traditionally economically depressed areas of Memphis than is representative of the entire Shelby County area. Key results included the following: Overall: Almost 75 percent of those surveyed were proud to live in Memphis. The common wisdom in Memphis is that Memphians have an inferiority complex, so this number was surprising. Also, about 92 percent surveyed like their neighborhoods, and about 80 percent feel safe where they live. However, the respondents not liking the neighborhood where they lived were also the ones most likely not to be proud to live in Memphis. One thought by the committee was

Memphis Image Survey Summary

that perhaps the public relations plan should address strengthening and taking pride in individual neighborhoods rather than trying to promote Memphis as a whole. More than half of the respondents do not feel safe downtown. This was not significantly different whether respondents lived in the suburbs or in midtown. The riverfront development was thought by an overwhelming 85 percent to be a good means of attracting tourists and potential residents. Racial Issues: Only about 30 percent of those surveyed felt that racial groups work well together in Memphis. However, 57 percent of the African American population felt they worked well together compared to 27 percent for whites, indicating it was much more an issue with the white community. Arts, Health Care: About 90 percent felt that cultural arts make a city stronger and more attractive to newcomers. However, almost half didn’t think there was enough variety in the cultural arts in Memphis and Shelby County. More than 80 percent think that the quality of health care in Memphis is good. Both are selling points and should be emphasized in selling Memphis. Traffic: While 75 percent of the respondents felt that traffic in Memphis was much less congested than in other large cities, 67 percent did

not think it is as safe to drive here as it is in other major cities. Government: Only 23 percent of those responding felt city government was run efficiently compared to about half who think county government is efficient (still low). About 75 percent didn’t trust elected officials, either city or county. So, while the city has a worse problem, it is clearly an issue that must be addressed with both levels. Education: There was another split between city and county, with city schools getting worse marks than county schools. However, neither was great. About 90 percent felt city schools were not excellent compared to about half answering the same for the county schools. This is a major issue that must be addressed if Memphis is to attract quality business and industry. Questions 1. Given these data, what would you emphasize in the public relations campaign? 2. Was the sample adequate to determine citizens’ perceptions of Memphis? 3. How might the return rate affect the results? 4. What would you have done differently if you had been in charge of the survey? Source: Dan Lattimore, Chair, Memphis Chapter of PRSA, Research Committee, October 2001.

responses to those questions a practitioner raises concerning the attitudes and perceptions of certain publics about critical issues. See mini-case 5.1. Experimental Research Experimental research is generally divided into two categories: laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory experiments take place in carefully controlled environments designed to minimize outside effects. Field experiments take place in real-world settings. The trade-off between field and laboratory experiments is essentially one of authenticity versus purity. In a field experiment, the researcher sacrifices a great deal of control over the setting to obtain reactions in a real environment. In a laboratory setting, however, the 104

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researcher can control many outside stimuli that might contaminate the results of the study. For example, a public relations practitioner might decide to pretest a particular message by inviting people into a room to view the message in several forms and then measuring their reactions. A church foundation attempting to raise funds for a chaplain in a local cancer hospital used this method to test the graphics and photographs in its brochure to avoid negative effects before publication. When the U.S. government embarked on its first funded media campaign to reduce “risky” behaviors among young adolescents, it pretested the potential effectiveness of 30 different public service announcements (PSAs) by screening them for young people. In doing so, they found that some of the PSAs actually had the opposite effect than was intended.5 The laboratory setting ensured that the subjects’ responses were based on the message being studied and not on other stimuli that might be in a normal environment. To test the effects of a message in a more authentic setting, a field experiment such as a testmarket study could be arranged, using a specific group of young people in their normal environment. Very little public relations research is done in a controlled laboratory setting. Other than survey research, field experiments are the second most used scientific research method along with content analysis. Before the U.S. Department of Energy launched a major energy-saving campaign, it field-tested the program over a three-month winter period in six cities, with one city as a control group (a city not given any of the campaign information like the other five cities). Each of the six cities had been surveyed with a random sample of residents prior to the campaign for awareness and use of energysaving devices and techniques. Each was then surveyed after the three-month campaign. A small percentage increase in awareness and use occurred in the control city that was not subjected to the campaign. But a significant increase occurred in the other five cities. The difference between the control city’s awareness and usage scores, then, was attributed to the public relations campaign efforts.6

Collecting Formal Research Data We have described several methods of research. Next we look at ways to collect information. Descriptive and Inferential Methods Research information can be obtained in a variety of ways that may be classified as either descriptive or inferential. Descriptive data are used to describe something, such as a particular group of people (a public). If the public relations practitioner in an organization asks the personnel department to prepare a demographic profile of its employees (average age, sex breakdown, years of education, experience level, etc.), he or she is requesting descriptive data. Such studies use averages, percentages, actual numbers, or other descriptive statistics to summarize the characteristics of a group or public. Inferential data do more than describe a particular public. Inferential data describe (infer) the characteristics of people not included in the specific group from which the information was obtained. Through sampling, which we discuss later in this section, it is possible to select a relatively small number who represent a larger population. Using inferential statistics, a public relations practitioner can infer the characteristics of a very large public, such as a consumer group, from a relatively small but representative sample of that population.

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Methods for Obtaining Information Whether research is classified as descriptive or inferential, survey or experimental, and regardless of the sampling technique employed, the three basic means for collecting public relations research data are observations, interviews, and questionnaires. Observational techniques are easily misused in public relations research because of the informal nature of many observations used in qualitative research about publics. The personal observations of a practitioner are severely limited by his or her own perceptions, experiences, and sensitivity. These problems can lead to decisions based more on gut feeling than on reliable information. Personal observations are made more reliable by using structural techniques because observers are trained within established rules to systematically observe and record data, but this is normally an expensive and complex process. Interviews can be a successful way to get information from a public. Skilled interviewers can elicit information that individuals might not otherwise volunteer. Interviews may take place in person as well as over the telephone, and they are generally classified as structured or unstructured. Structured interviews use a schedule of questions with specific response choices ranging from yes/no to multiple choice. Unstructured interviews allow subjects to respond to open-ended questions however they wish. Although interviews are frequently employed, they have disadvantages. For example, the personality, dress, speech patterns or accents, and nonverbal cues of the interviewer may bias the response. To minimize such problems, it is necessary to use expertly trained interviewers, who are often costly. Interviewers can use the open-ended personal interviews just described, or they may use a structured questionnaire. Personal interviews can be much more in-depth than a mail or phone interview. The phone interview must be short—usually 5 to 10 minutes in length—while the mail or Web questionnaire should take no longer than 10 minutes to complete. Questionnaires must be designed properly to gather data that are unbiased. That means questions must be simple and straightforward without being “loaded.” Questionnaires are often designed using language that has emotionally charged words to influence the respondent in a certain way. Questions must also have only one answer per question. Web questionnaires are the most common form of data collection because they are stable in presentation and inexpensive to use. Once a questionnaire is posted to a Web site, each respondent is asked the same questions in exactly the same way. Questionnaires are generally designed to measure one or more of the following: knowledge, attitudes, opinions, and demographic characteristics of the sample. But they may also measure the intensity of those attitudes or opinions. The decision about whether to use a mail or Web questionnaire or a phone or personal interview to gather data for public relations research must take into account the study’s budget, purpose, subjects, and a variety of other considerations. Questionnaires can be returned by mail or the Web and may be administered to either individuals or specific groups. They provide anonymity and present a uniform stimulus to all participants. However, the response rate may be low, and those who do respond may not be representative of the larger population. Web questionnaires have become quite popular to administer to groups with specific Web access. However, the response rate is often similar to a mail questionnaire—low. On the other hand, personal or phone interviews are more flexible, get a higher percentage of responses in some situations, and can be used with relatively uneducated publics. They are also considerably more expensive to administer.

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Sampling Methods A sample is a subset of a population or public. Public relations researchers use samples because in most instances it is impractical to collect information from every person in the target public. There are numerous sampling techniques, but the best methods rely on the theory of probability to provide a miniature version of the target public. The theory of probability is the basis of all inferential statistics. The following sampling methods rely on the theory of probability to ensure that a sample is representative of the public from which it is drawn. Simple random sampling is a technique that allows each member of a public an equal chance of being selected. If the sample is large enough and is selected totally at random, it will accurately reflect the characteristics of its public. For example, the Nielsen ratings use from 1,200 to 1,600 in a random sample to determine what households across the country are viewing each night. Probably the most common example of simple random sampling is drawing a name from a hat. Assuming the names of all of the people in the target population are in the hat, and the slips of paper are mixed up adequately, each slip has an equal chance of being selected at the time of the drawing. Whatever the methodology, all research relies upon accurate Systematic sampling uses a list, like a telephone direcdata input. This generally requires a human interface that tory or mailing list, to select a sample at random. Generally, can be costly and subject to error. a table of random numbers is used to find a starting point on the list and a selection interval. For example, a researcher might randomly pick the number 293006 from a table of random numbers. Using the first three digits, the researcher could start on page 293 of the telephone directory; then, using the last three digits, he or she could select every sixth name for the sample. This method is more practical than simple random sampling in most public relations research. However, finding complete lists may be difficult for some publics. Telephone books, for instance, will not include people who have unlisted numbers or who rely strictly on cell phones. There are other less representative sampling techniques, but pure random sampling is best to use when possible. With random sampling, a smaller sample will give more significant results than determining your sample in any other way.

Most organizational goals and objectives dealing with MEASURING PUBLIC public relations depend to some extent on the concept of public opinion. Therefore, public relations research is often used to sample public opinion. It is important to understand at the outset that an organization does not have a single indistinguishable public. The public relations practitioner who relies on so-called public opinion polls to provide insight into characteristics or opinions of his or her potential audience may be operating with erroneous data. Most polls of this type are not very useful from a public relations point of view because they actually measure mass opinion rather than public opinion. Before using a survey, the practitioner should be aware of the difference between measuring mass opinion and measuring public opinion.

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OPINION

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Mass Opinion Mass opinion represents an average taken from a group with many different opinions. However, averages tend to blur the strength of some attitudes. When substantially different opinions are averaged together, the result may be very different from the original opinions stated. For example, if we conduct a poll asking people about the image of a particular organization, we might ﬁnd that 60 percent of our sample give it very high marks, while 40 percent feel very negative. Looking at the average of these responses, we might deduce that the organization in question has a moderately positive image; however, this would hide the substantial amount of negative feelings that exist. Our hypothetical survey has actually uncovered two publics—one that has a very positive image of the organization and another that has a very negative image. In fact, no one in our sample holds the moderately positive view the average implies. To respond properly, we should construct communication strategies for two groups of people with very strong but opposite opinions. Public relations must be concerned with the strength as well as the direction of public attitudes. Many mass opinion polls are useful for little more than predicting political elections. They do not shed much light on the complexities of public opinion that an effective public relations program must address. However, if the results of the mass opinion poll are analyzed by different demographic characteristics of those polled, the result is more nearly a public opinion poll.

Public Opinion Public opinion polls involve carefully targeted populations. The public relations professional must break down the audience into meaningful subgroups and design specific communication strategies for each segment. Public opinion sampling is not useful unless it reflects accurately the feelings of each significant audience group and provides some insight into why these opinions are held. For example, a political opinion poll finding that middle-class, white voters think public school education is the key issue in the campaign because school funding has been cut every year for the past 10 years might give a candidate enough information to develop more commercials geared to this issue. However, if the poll had found only that this group favored one candidate over another, it would not have provided the information needed.

Identifying Publics John Dewey, in his 1927 book The Public and Its Problems, deﬁnes a public as a group of people who 1. 2. 3.

Face a similar indeterminate situation. Recognize what is indeterminate in that situation. Organize to do something about the problem.7

A public, then, is a group of people who share a common problem or goal and recognize their common interest. In the remainder of this chapter, we discuss specific methods for measuring public opinion and applying it effectively in public relations work. James Grunig proposed and tested three categories for the identification of publics based on Dewey’s definition: ■

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Latent public—A group faces an indeterminate situation but does not recognize it as a problem.

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Aware public— The group recognizes a problem, that is, what is missing in the situation, and becomes aware. Active public— The group organizes to discuss and do something about the problem.8

Such categories group together people who are likely to behave in similar ways. This makes it possible for public relations practitioners to communicate with each group regarding its needs and concerns rather than attempting to communicate with a mythical “average” public. Researching public opinion in appropriate categories can help direct the public relations process. For example, it may be possible to classify the primary audience for a public relations campaign in one of the three categories listed above and develop speciﬁc messages for them. In the Cedar Springs case, physicians were an active public. However, if management had not taken care to determine the view of a latent public, the patients, costly errors could have been made.

Environmental Monitoring Results of a survey by the Foundation for Public Relations Research and Education revealed that environmental monitoring is the fastest-growing category of public relations research.9 Organizations today recognize themselves as dynamic, open systems that must react to changes in the environment, so keeping track of those changes is important. Public relations practitioners can use formal systems for observing trends and changes in public opinion and other areas of the environment to guide many phases of organizational planning, including public relations. Issues management, discussed earlier, is one application of environmental monitoring. Another technique is scanning. Environmental scanning is the monitoring, evaluating, and disseminating of information to key decision makers within an organization. It is an important tool for public relations because it can provide the initial link in the chain of perceptions and actions that permit an organization to adapt to its environment. The advances in computer technology, particularly through the Internet, have made continuous scanning both more feasible and necessary. A recent study of the impact of Internet newsgroups on Intel’s inability to manage the damage to its public image from a ﬂawed Pentium chip demonstrates how quickly latent publics can become active. The proliferation of newsgroups on the Internet has greatly increased the ability of single-issue publics to form. In the Intel case more than 130,000 people visited a newsgroup Web site in a matter of weeks, turning an obscure problem with a chip into a highly recognized problem in the minds of consumers. With the use of this technology rapidly expanding around the world, organizations need to have a regular presence in cyberspace to monitor all appearances of their corporate identity online. The Center for Association Leadership has developed a Web-based scanning service to provide access to detailed data on trends, key issues, and action planning templates 24/7.10 The continuous scanning model supports the strategic planning effort of organizations. For example, top executives at several government insurance pools are now engaging in environmental scanning to extract research from news stories, speeches, blogs (Web pages posted as personal journals), and various publicly accessible information sources to identify future issues and trends that may help them predict risks.11 Special research techniques for public relations practitioners include the public relations audit, the communication audit, and the social audit.

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SPECIAL PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

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The Public Relations Audit The most frequently used mixed type of public relations research is the audit. The public relations audit is essentially a broad-scale study that examines the internal and external public relations of an organization. Many of the research techniques we have already discussed are used in public relations audits. Public relations audits provide information for planning future public relations efforts. Carl Byoir and Associates, one of the pioneers of public relations auditing, describes it: “The public relations audit, as the name implies, involves a comprehensive study of the public relations position of an organization: how it stands in the opinion of its various publics.”12 We can identify four general categories of audits in relation to organizations and their publics. Relevant Publics An organization prepares a list of relevant publics. A list of the organization’s relevant publics is made, describing each according to its function— stockholders, employees, customers, suppliers, and the like. Also included are publics that have no direct functional relationship but are nevertheless in a position to affect the organization—for example, consumer, environmental, community, and other social action groups. The procedure is basically one of audience identification to aid in planning public relations messages. The Organization’s Standing with Publics Each public’s view of the organization is determined through various research methods, most commonly opinion studies and content analysis of newspapers, magazines, and other print media. Both of these research methods were discussed earlier in this chapter. Issues of Concern to Publics Environmental monitoring techniques such as those already mentioned are used to construct an issues agenda for each of the organization’s relevant publics. These data identify publics according to issues of interest and their stands on those issues. The findings are then compared with the organization’s own policies. This is a vital step in planning public relations campaigns for various audiences. Power of Publics Publics are rated according to the amount of economic and political (and therefore regulatory) influence they have. Interest groups and other activist organizations are evaluated according to the size of their membership, size of their constituency, budget size and source of income, staff size, and number of qualified specialists (lobbyists, attorneys, public relations professionals, etc.). Public relations audits are regular components of many public relations programs. They provide input data for planning future public relations programs and help evaluate the effectiveness of previous efforts. Several public relations counseling firms offer audit services to their clients. Joyce F. Jones of the Ruder Finn Rotman Agency describes the audit process in four steps: 1.

2. 3.

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Finding Out What “We” Think. Interviews with key management at the top and middle strata of an organization to determine company strengths and weaknesses, relevant publics, and issues and topics to be explored. Finding Out What “They” Think. Researching key publics to determine how closely their views match those of company management. Evaluating the Disparity Between the Two. A public relations balance sheet of assets, liabilities, strengths, weaknesses, and so on is prepared based on an analysis of the differences found between steps 1 and 2.

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Recommending. A comprehensive public relations program is planned to ﬁll in the gap between steps 1 and 2 and to correct the deﬁcits of the balance sheet prepared in step 3.13

Organizational Image Surveys Attitude surveys that determine a public’s perceptions of an organization help public relations managers obtain an overall view of the organization’s image. Generally, such research seeks to measure (1) familiarity of the public with the organization, its ofﬁcers, products, policies, and other facets; (2) degrees of positive and negative perceptions; and (3) characteristics various publics attribute to the organization. Frequently, organizations use such surveys as planning tools to compare existing images with desired images. Once the differences are assessed, image goals can be set, and strategic plans can be made to overcome the identiﬁed problems. For example, cities seeking to attract convention and tourist business periodically check their image as perceived by key groups, then use these data to evaluate their attraction techniques. Although several organizations conduct their own image studies, many employ outside consultants or research organizations to supply them with data. Some major organizations that provide this type of data are Opinion Research Center, Inc.; Louis Harris and Associates; and Yankolovich, Skelly and White.14

Communication Audits The communication audit, like the public relations audit, is applied in many different ways. An effective communication audit begins with a receiver-oriented, as opposed to a sender-focused, model. These measures assess individual satisfaction with the amount of information employees or other publics receive on a topic relative to their needs, the understandability and usefulness of the information, and overall preferences for communication modes, such as face-to-face or e-mail. Generally, the communication audit attempts to monitor and evaluate the channels, messages, and communication climate of an organization. Sometimes audits are applied only to internal organizational communication systems; the same technique, however, can also be used to evaluate external systems. Frequently, results of a communication audit reveal problems of distortion or lack of information. See table 5.2 for a communication audit example. Communication audits package several research methods for speciﬁc applications. The following research methods are used in appropriate combinations to audit organizational communication and investigate speciﬁc problem areas: 1. 2.

Communication climate surveys. These attitudinal measurements are designed to reveal how open and adequate publics perceive communication channels to be. Network analysis. Generally done with the aid of a computer, this research method observes the frequency and importance of an interaction network, based on the most frequent linkages. These patterns can be compared with ofﬁcial organizational charts and communication policies to determine disparities between theory and practice. Readership surveys. These identify which articles or sections of publications are read most frequently. Although this method is strictly quantitative, it is an excellent way to determine the reading patterns of various publics. Content analysis. This quantitative tool, discussed earlier, can analyze the content of all types of messages. It is frequently used to describe the amount of favorable and unfavorable news coverage an organization receives.

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TABLE 5.2

Example of the Second Section of a Communication Audit: Assessing Specific Informational Needs and Media Preferences

Operations (NOTE: This category is just one of many possible topics that can be assessed.): Operations information refers to information that is related to day-to-day operations, production, schedules, and use of resources.

How satisfied are you with the amount of information on operations that you receive? (Please circle the number that best reflects your response.) Very dissatisfied

Very satisfied

Very understandable

How understandable is the information on operations that you receive? (Please circle the number that best reflects your response.) Not at all understandable

In general, how would you prefer to receive information on operations? (Please check your desired response.)

❏ Through written materials ❏ Through group meetings

❏ Through one-on-one interactions ❏ Verbally over the phone

The following section is designed to find out where you currently get information on operations and where you would prefer to get that information. Please check all of the boxes that apply and feel free to write in any sources of information that you currently use or ones that you would like to see used. I currently get information on operations from:

❏ The company newsletter ❏ Weekly meetings ❏ Weekly status reports ❏ E-mail ❏ Intranet ❏ Supervisor updates ❏ Other

I would prefer to get information on operations from:

❏ The company newsletter ❏ Weekly meetings ❏ Weekly status reports ❏ E-mail ❏ Intranet ❏ Supervisor updates ❏ Other

Source: Dean Kazoleas and Alan Wright, “Improving Corporate and Organizational Communications: A New Look at Developing and Implementing the Communication Audit,” in Handbook of Public Relations, ed. Robert L. Heath and Gabriel Vasquez (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), p. 477.

Readability studies. Several methods may be employed to assess how readily written messages are understood. Most of these methods are based on the number of syllables in the words and the length of the sentences used. These formulas are discussed in more detail in chapter 8 when we discuss evaluation techniques. For now, we note only that they help determine the clarity of a written message and its appropriateness to the educational level of an audience.

Usability Research The pervasive use of the Internet requires virtually every public relations effort to include the design of Web-based materials. Because the nature of online messages is dramatically different from other visual images and printed text, online messages must be evaluated for usability in addition to other communication standards. A technique ﬁrst applied to product and software development, usability research helps assess both the objective and subjective responses of users to Web sites.15

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Research Terms in Lay Language Many of the research terms used in this chapter may be unfamiliar to you. Although they are defined more thoroughly throughout the chapter, and you can find the definitions in the glossary at the end of the book, you may find it helpful to study these terms both before and after reading the chapter. Secondary research is research from sources already produced, such as books, magazines, newspapers, published opinion polls, Web articles, and other electronic records. You should read the existing research on your topic first, so the term “secondary” research is perhaps misleading. Primary research is original research. It is needed when secondary research cannot provide the answers to the questions. Informal research is nonscientific research or information gathering. For example, it may include phone calls to the organization as well as letters, sales reports, and informal discussions with community leaders. Formal research is scientific research. It is done to produce results that

Spotlight 5.1

Chapter 5 • Research: Understanding Public Opinion

are highly likely to be statistically accurate within a given range. Focus groups focus or select from a certain characteristic(s) of your audience. From this select group, usually 8–12 people, a moderator asks open-ended questions to probe for the why or the in-depth answer to the question. Even though focus group research is considered informal research because the results from the group cannot be scientifically applied to the larger group or public it represents, this primary research tool has become one of the most popular of all research tools for the public relations practitioner. Descriptive data are bits of information used to describe something, such as a particular group of people. These data often include percentages, averages, or actual numbers to summarize the characteristics of a group or public. Inferential data are the result of systematic sampling of a population, and you can infer from the sample the characteristics of the larger group.

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Sample is a subset of a population that is selected to give information from which the researcher can make inferences about the larger group. From that sample, if chosen properly, the researcher can provide a statistical degree of reliability that the sample is similar to the total population, depending on the sample size, questions asked, and type of sample. Simple random sampling is a research gathering technique that selects a subset of the larger group with every member of the larger group having an equal chance of being selected. This type of sampling gives the best statistical chance of being accurate. Stratified random sampling is simply random sampling within each strata or subgroup of the larger population. For instance, if you took 5 percent at random of all freshmen, then a 5 percent sample of sophom*ores, juniors, and seniors, you would have a sample different from a random sample of all undergraduate students. This type of sample allows you to compare the different classifications (strata).

Social Audits The concept of the social audit began in the early 1960s when businesses and other organizations were challenged to recognize their obligations to society. Social audits are generally attitude and opinion surveys that measure the perceptions of various publics about an organization’s social responsiveness. This technique attempts to quantify the impact an organization has on its public in much the same way that a public relations audit does. However, social audits are generally conﬁned to issues of social responsibility. Recent research has shown that organizations and their publics have professional, personal, and community relationships. Therefore, organizations need to be clear about the relationships they are attempting to manage with various publics. Professional relationships demand a businesslike, service-oriented approach to a public, whereas personal relationships depend on a perception of trust. Community relationships require that an organization be seen as supportive and active in improving the social and economic interests of a public. Social auditing was common in the mid- to late 1970s. In recent years, social issues have been included in other types of research, such as environmental scanning and public relations and communication audits.16 See spotlight 5.1 for a review of some of the terms used in this chapter. 113

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University Blood Drive

Case Study

he local nonprofit blood bank has asked your university to prepare a public relations campaign for a university-wide blood drive next semester. The bloodmobile will be on campus for donations one week next semester. The university has asked your chapter of the Public Relations Student Society of America to do the campaign. You have been given the responsibility for conducting the research prior to the development of the campaign. The person in charge has asked you to find answers to questions like these: Where would you find information on blood drives, blood banks, and blood donors? Who are your publics? How would you find out what they know about giving blood from experience, or what their attitudes are about donating blood? How would you find the most effective media to reach these publics? How would you decide what your message should be? What kinds of questions do you need to ask in your research? Design a formal survey research plan to answer the questions, including who you would sample, how many participants you would need, and how you would administer the survey. Write the questions for the questionnaire. Questions 1. Who are your target audiences? 2. What preliminary research would you use? 3. What sources would you use to find out the preliminary background information? 4. What formal, or systematic, research techniques would you need to use? 5. What kind of questions do you need to ask?

Summar y For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

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Research is an important part of any public relations effort. It supplies the initial inputs to guide strategy and message development and provides a method for predicting effectiveness and assessing results. Public relations professionals must be able to measure the effects of their work and make reasonable predictions about future success if they wish to inﬂuence managerial decisions in most organizations today. Many public opinion surveys are not useful in public relations planning and evaluation because they tend to average responses so that the relative strengths of attitudes are disguised. Good public opinion research must be sensitive enough to segment publics according to the strengths of their opinions. Four basic categories of research in public relations are sufﬁciently sensitive: environmental monitoring, public relations audits, communication audits, and social audits.

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active public audit aware public communication audit communication climate survey content analysis descriptive data environmental monitoring environmental scanning experimental research focus group formal research inferential data interviews issues management key contacts latent public mass opinion

1. Nick Del Calzo, Del Calzo and Associates, video interview with Dan Lattimore. 2. Don W. Stacks, Primer of Public Relations Research (New York: Guilford Press, 2002). 3. Larissa A. Grunig, “Using Focus Group Research in Public Relations,” Public Relations Review XVI (Summer 1990), pp. 36–49. 4. Walter K. Lindenmann, “Research, Evaluation and Measurement: A National Perspective,” Public Relations Review XVI (Summer 1990), p. 10. 5. “Avoiding the Boomerang: Testing the Relative Effectiveness of Anti-Drug Public Service Announcements before a National Campaign,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 2 (February 2002), p. 238.

network analysis observations opinion leaders primary research public opinion public relations audit qualitative research questionnaires readability study readership survey research sample secondary research simple random sampling social audit survey research systematic sampling

9. Otto Lerbinger, “Corporate Use of Research in Public Relations,” Public Relations Review 3 (Winter 1977), p. 11.

Notes

11. Dave Lenckus, “Public Entities Search Below the News Radar,” Business Insurance 39 (June 6, 2005), pp. 11–13. 12. Lerbinger, “Corporate Use,” p. 16. 13. Joyce F. Jones, “The Public Relations Audit: Its Purpose and Uses. R&F Papers,” Number 3 (New York: Ruder Finn Rotman, Inc., 1975). Reprinted in Public Relations Journal 31 (July 1975), pp. 6–8. 14. Lerbinger, “Corporate Use,” p. 12.

7. John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (Chicago: Swallow, 1927). 8. James E. Grunig, “A New Measure of Public Opinions on Corporate Social Responsibility,” Academy of Management Journal 22 (December 1979), pp. 740–41.

16. Cynthia E. Clark, “Differences Between Public Relations and Corporate Social Responsibility: An Analysis,” Public Relations Review 26 (Autumn 2000), pp. 363–80.

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Key Terms

10. Michelle Mason, “Revolutionizing the Scan Process,” Association Management 57 (August 2005), p. 16.

15. Kirk Hallahan, “Improving Public Relations Web Sites through Usability Research,” Public Relations Review 27 (Summer 2001), pp. 223–39.

6. Del Calzo, video interview.

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C H A P T E R

Strategic Planning for Public Relations Effectiveness OUTLINE PREVIEW STRATEGIC PLANNING Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 2 IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING FUNDAMENTALS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING ELEMENTS OF PLANNING Campaign Plans (Single Use) Planning by Objectives Standing Plans CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES

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PREVIEW

lessio is the public relations director of Northern State University. For the last couple of years, he and his team have been working on their plans for the celebration of the uni-

versity’s upcoming 100th anniversary. The theme of the celebration is “100 Years of Inspiration and Service.” Now that the kickoff events are finally approaching, it’s time to get down to the details. Alessio has been looking forward to seeing all his department’s plans come to fruition. Among the events to be held during the monthlong celebration are the dedication of a new science building; a renaming ceremony for the athletic field—complete with a fireworks display; the installation of an outdoor sculpture to commemorate the school’s founding; a black-tie dinner for faculty and administration to follow a special concert by the school’s orchestra; and the placement of innumerable media stories and interviews with the university’s president and other key figures. Plans for most of these, including timetables and budgets, were begun and coordinated with other departments many months ago, and Alessio has checked his staff’s weekly progress reports about each event. Everything is on track. With only a few days to go, his work is becoming ever more focused. The president’s office has e-mailed with a question about the time of her upcoming interview with the local television station, and Alessio’s to-do list for today includes writing the press releases announcing the opening of the new campus building. He sits down at his computer, forwards the interview information to the president, opens his word processing program, and starts to write.

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Public relations strategic planning provides organization to the public relations process. “Strategic planning is a process of assessing what you have and where you want to go.”1 The caliber and thoroughness of thinking preceding the execution of public relations activities will determine the value of the public relations operation. Understanding how to develop a public relations plan, then, is one of the main criteria that separates entry-level positions from top management in public relations. Planning moves public relations from a reactive activity to a proactive process. Public relations practitioners, like most other managers, tend to be action oriented. The constant changes that take place both inside and outside any organization produce an endless procession of public relations problems. Too often, because of the number of pressing problems, managers find themselves responding only to exceptional situations. Such situations are usually negative in that they require the practitioner to intervene after a problem has already gotten out of control. Although putting out fires is certainly part of the public relations function, it cannot be allowed to dominate all actions. If it does, the practitioner becomes a victim of circ*mstances, able to react only to the situation at hand. Perhaps the most frequent complaint of public relations practitioners is that other managers ask for their services only after the problem has become unmanageable. When damage to the organization’s image has already been done, the public relations manager is often directed to “fix it.” This may prove to be a no-win situation both for the organization and for the practitioner who must engage in usually fruitless remedial public relations. For a long time, public relations practitioners have been advocating preventive public relations to avoid such problems. Part of this approach involves the type of fact-finding research we discussed in chapter 5. If practitioners detect potential problems before they erupt into damaging situations, they can give management early warning and advice. Sometimes even early detection cannot forestall some negative impact. When advanced warning is coupled with adequate planning, however, negative effects can be minimized, and public relations management can provide well-designed, positive actions rather than hastily conceived reactions. As we continue the integrating case study begun in chapter 5, notice how the pitfalls of hasty reaction were avoided.

STRATEGIC PLANNING

Integrating Case Study

Cedar Springs Community Hospital Segment 2

ou may remember that the physicians at Cedar Springs Hospital (chapter 5) were calling for immediate action to correct what they saw as a potentially life-threatening situation in patient care. Reaction to the problem as it appeared at the time would have generated a campaign to make employees more aware of the need for quality patient care and emphasize their responsibility for providing the best care possible. However, before taking action, the public relations director conducted some research to help him better understand the problem. The results were surprising and showed that the first action contemplated would have only made things worse. Employees already believed that the quality of patient care in the hospital was subpar and were frustrated because they felt they personally were doing a good job. In addition, research revealed that recently released patients rated the quality of care significantly better than the employees did.

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The sizable difference between the ratings of employees and patients pointed to a different problem than was originally suspected. The planning process based on this research redefined the issue from one of actual care to one of perceptions about care. Objective: The objective that grew out of the research findings was to improve employee and physician views of overall hospital performance. Obviously, since both doctors and individual employees believed they were personally providing the best care they could and patients rated their performance high, the actual quality of care was good. However, their perception of poor performance was creating a morale problem for both doctors and employees. Planning: Two basic strategies were devised to be implemented in a yearlong campaign. The first strategy was to continually reinforce employees’ feelings of worth as members of the hospital’s medical team through positive feedback from management. The second strategy was to help both physicians and employees more accurately judge the overall quality of care through increased feedback from patients. Budget: A budget of $6,000 was developed to conduct additional surveys of recent patients and communicate the message of quality care through a variety of media. Communication channels would be selected to allow both internal and external audiences to get the message that hospital employees were a quality team. Policies were changed to allow any letters with positive comments from patients to be routed first to the departments involved before being filed.

In the Cedar Springs case, research and careful planning IMPORTANCE prevented the loss of time and employee confidence that would have resulted from reacting too quickly to the first symptoms of the problem. Only through continuous advance planning can public relations practitioners avoid having to react after the damage has been done. Even though many public relations managers think they have no time to plan, the more time they spend planning based on adequate research, the less time they will need to spend putting out fires. David M. Dozier summarized the significance of planning:

OF PLANNING

The process of setting public relations goals and objectives in measurable form serves two purposes. First, the prudent and strategic selection of public relations goals and objectives linked to organizational survival and growth serves to justify the public relations program as a viable management activity. . . . Second, the speciﬁcation of public relations goals and objectives in measurable form makes public relations accountable and makes program success or failure concrete and objective.2

Planning permits the development of integrated public relations efforts that support an organization’s goals in a positive rather than a defensive manner. Planning provides the opportunity to involve management from other areas of the organization and to ensure their cooperation and support. When a manager from another department has input into the public relations plan, he or she is much more likely to support that effort.

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Public relations efforts often fail because of communication breakdowns between practitioners and other managers within an organization. The cause of these breakdowns is frequently an imperfect alignment between the public relations planning process and planning done elsewhere in the organization. Misunderstandings can usually be prevented if public relations practitioners analyze the organizational management as carefully as they analyze any other audience. Public relations departments must prepare messages that communicate their needs and potential contributions to other segments of the organization. Therefore, when planning, they must learn the terms and methods common to organizational management.

Planning is generally classified into two broad categories: strategic and tactical. Strategic plans are long-range plans, usually made at the upper levels of management. They involve decisions concerning major goals of an organization and policies for their implementation. Environmental scanning (chapter 5) has become a primary tool to identify and to prioritize the strategic issues upon which an organization’s plans are ultimately founded.3 Tactical plans develop specific decisions about what will be done at every level of the organization to accomplish the strategic plans. Strategic planners typically deal with future events and must therefore rely on relatively uncertain data. The use of forecasting techniques to predict what effects economic and technical changes will have on an organization in the next five years is an example of strategic planning. Tactical planners, on the other hand, are more concerned with the day-to-day operation of an organization and its immediate future. Public relations plans are both strategic and tactical. Decisions concerning the longrange future of an organization often take public relations into consideration. However, public relations staff members must develop tactical plans to implement and support strategic plans. To begin the planning process, you need to look to the future, or forecast. Planning always involves the future. Predicting barriers that may exist in the future is a much more difficult job than evaluating the existing situation, yet such predictions are necessary to determine the effects of future conditions on the programs being planned. The goal of attempting to look into the future is to better understand the environment in which your publics will be forming their opinions. Such efforts are designed to help identify and categorize stakeholder groups so that their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors can be assessed and predicted with some accuracy. In addition, these efforts can help to identify target audiences, understand audience lifestyles, and identify appeals that may be successful. Some of the techniques commonly used for such analyses are discussed next. They range from the complex and quantitative to the intuitive, but each has potential to contribute to the development of a successful plan. Public opinion surveys forecast reaction to initiative or actions contemplated by politicians, government officials, and managers. Presidents, for example, often use public opinion surveys to determine whether to support a legislative issue, a nominee for a cabinet position, or a military action; President George W. Bush looked closely at public opinion surveys in making decisions on the War on Terrorism. Predictions should also be made concerning the effects of planned public relations activities on various publics and the corresponding effects public reaction will have on the programs being planned. Often these judgments must be made by qualitative rather than

FUNDAMENTALS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING

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quantitative means. Juries of executive opinion, sales force composites, and customer expectations are frequently employed. Brainstorming is a group discussion technique used to generate large numbers of creative alternatives or new ideas. It has been used for some time by advertising agencies, public relations ﬁrms, and others who need to generate creative ideas. For example, brainstorming is often used to develop an appropriate theme for a public relations campaign. The basic rule of brainstorming is that no one is permitted to interject negative feedback or criticism into the discussion. As the group generates ideas, all are recorded to be critiqued later. No remark is considered too absurd or too simple because it could produce the spark necessary for a truly creative idea. Brainstorming can be effective with a group that is comfortable functioning in a freewheeling atmosphere. Scenario construction has been used by think tanks, such as the Rand Corporation, to create very long range forecasts. A logical, hypothetical description of future events (scenario) is constructed to explore the dynamics of various alternatives. For example, if a large auto company wanted to choose one of several manufacturing plants to close, a scenario could be constructed for each case to detail possible effects on the environment, economic future of the community, availability of replacement jobs, and other positive and negative results. With these, or other, approaches to examining the issues for the future of your organization, the planning process with its various elements can begin. Strategic plans and tactical plans combined produce either standing or single-use plans.

This hierarchy of plans is illustrated in figure 6.1. Goals refer ELEMENTS to the basic direction in which an organization is heading. The purpose, mission, objectives, and strategies of an organization are all component parts of its goals. These terms are frequently used interchangeably; however, they may also be used in various combinations to indicate sublevels of planning. Since there are no universally accepted definitions for these terms, most organizations adopt their own very specific applications.4 In the next section, we discuss the elements that are characteristic of planning, especially related to public relations campaigns. Understanding this process, along with the specifics of planning, is important to the success of the public relations effort of an organization. However, it should be noted that this is not a step-by-step or linear process. Some of the planning elements must Goals occur simultaneously, some are ongoing, and some may occur before others in cerPurpose tain situations. Mission Objectives

Campaign Plans (Single Use) Campaigns are a frequent output of public relations planning. Because campaigns are usually designed to accomplish unique objectives, they must be planned using nonroutine procedures. Some generally accepted elements for writing the campaignplanning document include the following.

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Strategies

OF PLANNING

Single-Use Plans Programs Projects Campaigns Budgets

Standing Plans Policies Standard procedures and methods Rules

FIGURE 6.1 Hierarchy of Plans

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1. Establishing Goals in Relation to the Mission Statement In the Cedar Springs case, patient care became the goal that unified physicians, administrators, and employees. Agreeing on a goal or a set of goals must be the first step in deciding what a public relations effort will need. Frequently, in a list of possible goals, two or more are mutually exclusive. When possible goals conflict, each must be evaluated to determine the long- and short-range effects of acceptance or rejection, which is based on the organization’s mission statement. Resources often dictate the selection of goals. An organization may not be able (or willing) to devote the time, personnel, and capital necessary to accomplish some goals. Goals that are selected for the public relations function, however, must always relate to organizational purpose. When seeking approval for public relations goals, a manager will be more successful if he or she is able to relate them to the mission, goals, and objectives of the entire organization. For example, Ben & Jerry’s three-part mission statement provides the basis for its public relations effort: Product Mission: To make, distribute, and sell the finest quality all-natural ice cream and related products in a wide variety of flavors made from Vermont products. Economic Mission: To operate the company on a sound financial basis of profitable growth, increasing value for our shareholders, and creating career opportunities and financial rewards for our employees. Social Mission: To operate the company in a way that actively recognizes the central role that business plays in the structure of society by initiating innovative ways to improve the quality of life of a broad community: local, national, or international.5

Many of Ben & Jerry’s environmental community relations efforts have been developed to implement the social mission statement particularly. These environmental community relations initiatives have contributed signiﬁcantly to making the company known throughout the country as a socially responsible, environmentally friendly organization.

Major special events, such as this Centennial of Flight celebration at the Air & Space Museum, often require their own public relations plan. Usually, though, special events are only one strategy of a plan. This event honored the 100th anniversary of the Wright brothers’ flight.

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2. Determining the Present Situation In reality, it is impossible to separate planning from research because they occur almost simultaneously; thus, as a goal is considered, current data about the organization’s environment must be collected and used to evaluate the likelihood that the goal can be reached. Information provided by the kind of fact-ﬁnding research discussed in chapter 5 is crucial at this point. Problem identiﬁcation based on the available data should answer the following questions: ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■

■

Is this a relatively big or little problem? What are the larger areas of concern into which this problem may ﬁt? Is this really a problem facing our publics? What background facts and issues from your client /organization research are relevant to this problem? If this is more than one problem, how should it be broken down? Does additional research need to be undertaken at this point to determine the extent of the problem? Is a public relations audit needed to understand the organization and its internal and external public relations opportunities?

Again, the Cedar Springs example demonstrates the importance of taking appropriate steps to get accurate information before a plan is begun. It is useless to set unrealistic goals or goals that have already been accomplished. Even after the goal has firmly been set, data about the current situation need to be monitored. If the situation changes, it may be necessary to alter the goal or goals. Goals must be set with a good understanding of the current situation, the available resources, and what limitations must be placed on those goals. 3. Determining Threats and Opportunities to Reaching Goals After determining reasonable goals, a more careful investigation of the environment must take place to identify what will aid and what will hinder the attainment of goals. The resources of an organization (people, money, and equipment) are important aids for achieving any goal. On the other side of the coin, a deficiency of any of these elements is a barrier that must be overcome. Although money is frequently the first barrier to be considered, it is seldom severe enough to prevent the accomplishment of objectives. Many plans, like the one at Cedar Springs Hospital, can be carried out with relatively small budgets. Key questions to ask to define aids and barriers include: Do we have the right individuals (rather than enough people)? and Do we have enough money (rather than how much money)? The structure and policies of an organization can also be either aids or barriers to reaching goals. For example, the goal of creating a sense of unity between labor and management could be severely hindered by policies that prohibit informal communication between the company and its union. Other barriers and aids are outside the organization—from government, competitors, consumer groups, and other special interest groups. 4. Researching and Selecting Your Target Audiences Based on preliminary research, the planning document should describe the primary target audiences, identify appeals and points of interest that will attract attention, define audience lifestyles, and determine the relative strength of each possible appeal. In selecting the audiences, you must first identify and categorize your stakeholder groups. You may divide

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them into primary and secondary publics. You may then analyze each group, determining which are the target audiences, or the stakeholders, you must reach if your public relations program is to be successful. Your research should also help you analyze and assess your target audiences’ attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. Audience analysis should include as thorough a description of the demographics and lifestyles of each audience as possible. It should also include identiﬁcation of possible messages or other appeals that can be used to inﬂuence each audience. Once you’ve determined your target audiences, you can then begin to develop your objectives, strategies, and tactics to best reach those stakeholders. Once you have identified the problems and opportunities, you must prioritize them. Seldom will you have the budget or the time to try to do everything at once. At this point you can develop a problem statement to reflect the research done to narrow the task to a manageable size. It should define the scope of the effort and recognize any special requirements of the organization, target audiences, and media. The planning document should tell how the purpose will be accomplished for the audience that has been identified. It should discuss specific tactics and alternatives, define expected outcomes, and specify communication media, activities, and channels to be used. 5. Developing a Theme for the Program or Campaign Not every public relations plan for a program or campaign has to have a theme, but often the theme has been the creative piece that has made a public relations campaign successful. An effective theme should do three things: ■ ■ ■

Catch the essence of the plan or campaign. Be short . . . around 3–5 words. Be something that can endure over time.

6. Developing the Objectives for the Plan or Campaign Objectives should be the heart of the plan. They should focus on overcoming the priority problems or developing the key opportunities for the plan. Objectives for public relations plans should be written in inﬁnitive form. Criteria for writing and selecting objectives ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Should be related to the overall goals of the organization. Need to be improvement oriented. Must be clearly deﬁned. Must be speciﬁc. Should be measurable. Need to be attainable.

For example, if a community theater is relatively new to a growing town, is struggling ﬁnancially because of low attendance and poor season ticket sales, and needs additional resources to produce the quality theater the community wants, its fall public relations plan might have the following objectives: ■ ■ ■ ■

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Increase awareness of the community theater by 25 percent within the local area. Increase season ticket sales 10 percent. Raise $25,000 in endowment for the theater. Involve 25 new volunteers in working with the theater.

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SFJAZZ volunteers examine a new brochure, one of the campaign’s tactics.

7. Creating Strategies to Accomplish the Objectives Strategies may be the most difficult of the terms to define in the planning process. Strategies can refer to the type or emphasis of a message, the way we want to approach a task, or a variety of other things. However, in this context a strategy is a way or ways you are going to accomplish your objectives. For the community theater, some strategies to implement the first objective might include ■ ■ ■

Developing a media campaign to publicize the theater and its upcoming season. Creating informational materials for the theater. Preparing a special event, perhaps an open house with a concert from a relatively well-known music group.

Strategies, then, are used to define means for achieving objectives more precisely, are an intermediate step between objectives and tactics, and tend to group like tactics together. 8. Developing Tactics to Implement Strategies Tactics are the most specific, direct action that you can take in the plan. They are the most specific, concrete activity and should be related to the objectives and strategies. For the community theater, tactics for the second strategy (creating informational materials) might include these: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Develop a brochure about the upcoming season to sell season subscriptions. Develop a brochure to persuade residents to become volunteers at the theater. Create posters for each play during the upcoming season. Prepare programs for the performances. Create a video about the theater to be used to promote the theater and its upcoming season.

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9. Creating Evaluation Techniques To properly evaluate the plan, whether campaign or standing, the procedures for evaluation must be developed before implementation begins in order to have a benchmark with which to measure performance during and at the end of the program. The evaluation techniques used must evaluate each objective and should include formative as well as summative evaluation techniques. Formative evaluation (evaluation at various stages during the program) includes the monitoring necessary to make changes while the plan is still being implemented. Summative evaluation provides the summary of what went right or wrong — and why — after the campaign has ended. See chapter 8 for detailed information on the evaluation process. 10. Developing a Budget Budgets are essential to any plan. Generally, they are designed to project costs through the duration of a campaign or other period of time. Campaign or project budgets are components of plans to accomplish specific public relations activities. They provide structure and discipline in terms of time and money costs. Budgeting for specific activities is a rather straightforward process. Public relations managers prepare budgets using a simple, three-step model: (1) The required resources such as people, time, material, and equipment must be listed; (2) the extent these resources will be used is estimated; and (3) the costs of the resources are determined. These are considered “zero-based” budgets because they are built by including all specific costs needed to accomplish the project. Other budgets, such as functional and administrative ones, may need to be developed, but the zero-based budget is typically the one used for campaigns. When Pam Smith, a public relations staff member for our community theater example, set about producing a brochure to encourage community volunteers, she first had to develop a budget for the project. Table 6.1 shows her results. The left-hand column lists resources (step 1); the center column shows estimated quantities (step 2); and the right-hand column shows costs and how they are derived (step 3). Project and campaign budgets are the building blocks for annual public relations departmental budgets and the basis for bids submitted by independent public relations

TABLE 6.1

Budget for Community Theater Brochure

Resources

Quantities

Costs

1. Pam’s time (interview, write, integrate photos into copy, administer project) 2. Photographer’s time (freelance) (at $125 per hour) 3. Layout (graphics dept.) 4. Printer (outside contractor) with halftone (estimate, printer) 5. Distribution costs (mailing and handling)

56 hours 10 hours

$1,234.00 (based on $64,000 yearly) $1,250.00

8 pages 1,000 copies, 2 colors

$ 500.00 (estimate, graphics) $3,000.00

Postage for 1,000 copies Mailing lists of 500 names

$ 380.00

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10% contingency

$6,364.00 646.00

Total budgeted for brochures

$7,000.00

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The Rhode Island Department of Health Campaign Plan to Encourage Breast Cancer Screening

Spotlight 6.1

Duration of Campaign: November to December (13 months)

• Newspaper article on mammography

Campaign Chronology

• Talk given to American Cancer Society volunteers

Fourth Quarter • Press conference introduces Breast Cancer Screening Program • Advertisem*nts in one (1) statewide newspaper and three (3) regional newspapers • Talk given to American Cancer Society volunteers • Guest appearances on four (4) television programs and four (4) radio programs

• Guest appearances on three (3) talkradio programs

First Quarter • Advertisem*nts in one (1) statewide newspaper and three (3) regional newspapers

• Posters distributed to hospitals, radiologists, and hairdressers

• Mailing to all licensed MDs Second Quarter • Advertisem*nts in one (1) statewide newspaper and three (3) regional newspapers

Third and Fourth Quarters • Repeat messages as necessary. • Measure outcomes and evaluate campaign results with pre- and post-surveys. • 60% of targeted women had heard of the program. • 15% of women ages 40 and over received mammograms for the first time.

• Public service announcement distributed to all television stations

• Pilot mail campaign to all eligible state employees

Source: Vicki S. Freimuth, “Mass Media Strategies and Channels: A Review of the Use of Media in Breast and Cervical Cancers Screening Programs,” Wellness Perspectives 11 (Winter 1995), p. 79.

counselors. In either case, budgets become instruments in the competition for organizational resources. 11. Working Out a Timetable A schedule of all activities for a public relations campaign should be developed. This is a process of “back-timing,” or determining from what you want as a ﬁnished product how much time each step in the process will take. Various scheduling tools are available through computerized programs to provide assistance in detailing the exact time set for each of the tactics in the plan. Some organizations are small enough to use a simple calendar and denote the days needed for each activity, but whatever the means, it is essential that each individual activity or tactic be scheduled to know exactly when you need to begin in order to have it completed in time. For example, if you need to have a video news release (VNR) for your campaign, you will need to have the concept developed and approved, script written and approved, video shot, video edited, and the ﬁnal production approved before distribution can begin. You need to schedule time for each step in the process. See spotlight 6.1 for an example of a timetable. 12. Assigning Personnel The plan must detail the human resources needed to accomplish the objectives. Thus, the plan must address which departmental personnel will be used for what activities and where the additional personnel will be found. Many times, the company’s public relations agency is used for these additional personnel. Other times, freelance artists are hired, a research agency employed, or a video company contracted to provide the necessary expertise to complete the tactics required. Although there is general agreement about the need for all the preceding steps in planning a campaign, some elements are often overlooked. A recent survey of 41 campaigns 127

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Spotlight 6.2 Public relations often fails because managers do not understand what public relations people are saying and doing. Thus it is imperative that we talk in management’s terms rather than trying to educate them in ours. The Advantages of MBO 1. Communicates the way businesspeople think in terms of business problems and objectives. 2. Raises the importance of public relations in the corporate structure. 3. Presents a structure for implementing effective communications programs. 4. Helps keep the public relations practitioner on target in solving public relations problems.

Public Relations by Objectives

5. Contributes to the public relations body of knowledge. The Process 1. Get a fix on the business problem: Analyze the business problem using all available research techniques, then develop a clear, concise statement of what the problem is. 2. Translate the business problem into public relations objectives: This is the most difficult part of the process. The objectives should be stated in measurable terms. 3. Determine the audience(s): Identify to whom your message will be directed. There may be several audiences. Examples: print and broadcast media, company

employees, customers, government officials. Determine program elements: This includes exactly what vehicles will be used to effect the program. Examples: TV, news clips, news releases, institutional ads, speeches, and publicity events. Determine budget: The ideal situation is to fit the budget to the need, using an objective and task approach. Implement the program/campaign: Carry out the tactics of the campaign. Evaluate the program: Utilize appropriate measuring instruments and techniques.

showed that 100 percent identiﬁed their target audiences, but only 63 percent speciﬁed a theme and only 62 percent documented outcomes.6

Planning by Objectives Once a situation has been described, aids and barriers considered, and forecasts completed, developing alternative courses of action should be relatively automatic. After listing as many alternatives as possible, the process begins, comparing alternatives in terms of costs and beneﬁts. The term management by objectives (MBO), an approach to planning that is detailed in spotlight 6.2, has become less popular in management jargon today than in the last decade. However, the basic elements are still widely used to describe management plans. Most administrative planning processes are characterized by setting both long- and short-range objectives and then developing plans to accomplish those goals. Frequently, the process spreads to every level of an organization. Managers and their subordinates may begin the process by developing separate objectives and plans, then review one another’s work and prepare a joint document as a ﬁnal plan. This can occur at every level up the organization chart. The “Balanced Scorecard” currently used in many organizations is simply a listing of all key objectives to work toward combined with the time elements within which each objective should be completed.7 As we shall discuss in chapter 8, setting objectives prior to action is critical to the ability to demonstrate effectiveness in public relations efforts.

Standing Plans Within all organizations, certain programmable decisions call for a standardized, consistent response. Standing plans provide routine responses to recurring situations. Once set, standing plans allow managers to make more efﬁcient use of their planning time because they do not have to formulate a new plan for every similar situation. One 128

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note of caution: Overuse of standing plans may limit an organization’s responsiveness to its environment, a critical issue for public relations. Nevertheless, standing plans do have a place in the public relations function. We discuss three types of standing plans: policies, procedures, and rules. Policies Policies are generally established by an organization’s top management as guidelines for decision making. Those who make policy usually seek to guide decisionmaking activities in ways consistent with organizational objectives. Other purposes include improving effectiveness or imposing the values of top management. Sometimes policies originate informally at lower organizational levels as a pattern of decision making occurs over a long period of time. In such cases, top management merely formalizes what is already happening. In other situations, policy may be established either as a result of recommendations from lower-level managers or as a direct result of top management’s observation that a problem exists. Outside organizations, such as governmental agencies, also set policies or at least inﬂuence them. Health and safety policies in most large organizations have changed considerably in recent years as a direct result of actions by government agencies. Public relations departments, like all other subunits of organizations, must plan their daily operations to avoid conﬂict with policy. More important, public relations practitioners should be included in the strata of policymakers for any organization to ensure sensitivity to the interests of its publics. For example, policies directing that all contact with the press go through the public relations department for approval and advice should be reviewed by the public relations staff. Procedures Detailed guidelines for implementing policy decisions are called standard procedures. Standard procedures, or standard operating procedures, provide detailed instructions for performing a sequence of actions that occur regularly. Most public relations departments have standard procedures for news releases, internal publications, site tours, media interviews, and many other activities that are carried on from year to year. In addition, every organization needs a standard procedure for emergencies. Emergencies, although infrequent, should be handled through set procedures because of the need to respond quickly and effectively. When a disaster happens, it is too late to begin a deliberate planning process that will consider every alternative before responding. See mini-case 6.1. Coordinated, deliberate, and effective response is vitally important. When an emergency situation exists, time becomes the key element in communication; plans must be made in advance so that reaction can be immediate. Rules Whereas policies and standard procedures serve as guidelines for decision making, rules substitute for decisions. Rules are statements that specify the action to be taken in a particular situation. No latitude for application is provided other than the decision to either follow or not follow the rule. Rules may be necessary when certain procedures are crucial. For example, it is often wise to have a rule requiring that signed releases be obtained before personal information or photographs are used in publicity releases. Remember that the public relations plan is a message that must be communicated to an organization’s executives. Whether that message is accepted depends on the effective execution of the planning process and how the plan is communicated to the decision makers who must understand and approve it.

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Mini Case 6.1 ●

The space shuttle Columbia, only 16 minutes from a scheduled landing at Kennedy Space Center in Florida on February 1, 2003, blew apart, spreading wreckage from Fort Worth across east Texas to Louisiana and killing all seven astronauts on board. NASA responded immediately with communication through all media, letting the world know that a disaster had occurred. While still searching for answers to the cause of the crash, NASA administrator Sean O’Keefe vowed that safety is still its top priority. President George H. W. Bush praised the space program in his message to the nation and to the families who suffered the loss. But what was the public’s response? A Gallup poll taken the day after the disaster showed 82 percent of the American public wants NASA to continue sending people into space. That was similar to the 80 percent wanting to continue the program after the Challenger had been lost. President Bush vowed, “America’s space program will go on.” This time NASA was prepared, but years ago when the first space disaster occurred, it was not ready for a crisis situation. No reporters or correspondents from any media were on hand at Cape Kennedy when fire broke out in the command module of Apollo-Saturn 204, later known as Apollo 1, on January 27, 1967. The three-man crew, astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee, had entered Apollo at 1:00 P.M. for the last simulated countdown test before to launch. A series of problems quickly arose. Two of the astronauts reported fire in the co*ckpit, and technicians were horrified to see flames inside the now smoke-filled Apollo. Despite the danger of explosion from the escape rocket, six technicians rushed to open Apollo’s hatch. By then, all three astronauts were dead from carbon monoxide asphyxia and thermal burns. They had never even left the launch pad.

The Inevitable Tragedy: NASA’s Emergency Planning

Although NASA knew within five minutes of the accident that all three astronauts were dead, the information was not released until two hours later. It was nearly midnight before UPI and AP received a NASA picture of two of the astronauts entering the capsule for the last time. NASA claimed that withholding the facts and its issuance of misleading and wrong statements resulted from the lack of a plan for handling information in emergencies. As hard to believe as this may have been, coming as it did from an agency with a public information staff of 300, there was undoubtedly some validity to the claim. Since then NASA’s information office has maintained that an emergency plan was in effect and followed at the time of the Apollo 1 fire.8 NASA states that it has contingency plans for each mission. Indeed, when a fire broke out on board Apollo 13 three years later, many thought that NASA’s handling of the crisis not only saved the lives of the three astronauts but so enhanced the image of the agency that it bolstered support for the entire manned space program.9 On January 28, 1986, tragedy again struck the nation’s space program as millions of Americans and people all over the world witnessed via live television the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger shortly after liftoff. In their critiques of NASA’s communication on the disaster, many professional observers and news reporters commented that little seemed to have been learned from earlier experiences. Although the flight controllers knew the fate of the Challenger crew almost instantly, speculation about their ability to survive the accident was allowed to continue for about an hour after the explosion while technicians “gathered data.” In its most recent tragedy, NASA was once again required to put an emergency communication plan into effect. NASA moved swiftly to provide

information, especially in light of the fact that debris was scattered over large portions of Texas and Louisiana. Almost immediately the NASA Web site, www.nasa.gov, provided updated information, including video streams of press conferences. But as the investigation continued, questions were raised about the effectiveness of NASA’s internal communication. After Columbia’s fatal descent, e-mails and reports surfaced that were written prior to the mission and contained warnings about the possibility of just such an explosion. Several panels looked at the tragedy. A study comparing NASA’s handling of the Challenger and Columbia disasters found substantially more positive news coverage post-Columbia. The differences were linked to NASA’s use of specific communication behaviors along with prompt response and a constant flow of information.10 This pattern of prompt response and a constant flow of information was repeated when foam insulation was observed falling off the fuel tank during the July 2005 launch of Discovery. Questions 1. How successfully can an organization plan ahead for a disaster? 2. How would you prepare a public relations budget to cover any activities necessary after a major unexpected event?

Sources: Dianne Calhoun Bragg, graduate student at the University of Alabama, gathered the case from Charles W. Petit, “A Star-Crossed Flight,” U.S. News & World Report, February 17, 2003, pp. 44–49; Thomas Hayden, “Landing in the NASA Hot Seat,” U.S. News & World Report, February 17, 2003, pp. 52–53; NASA’s Web site; James Skardon, “The Apollo Story: What the Watchdogs Missed,” Columbia Journalism Review 6 (Fall 1967), pp. 13–14.

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Chapter 6 • Strategic Planning for Public Relations Effectiveness

Kodak Galleries

131

Case Study

Overview Kodak was a leader in photography and film for more than 120 years, but as film moved from analog to digital and photo from silver-based photography to digital, Kodak needed to reposition itself as a leader in the digital photography age. To help do this, Kodak hired Ketchum Public Relations. Ketchum looked for an idea to catch the essence of the new media and Kodak. The idea was to capture all that was Kodak in one concept that could be used in many applications. Gallery was that concept. “In 2005, Kodak launched a category breakthrough: the Kodak EasyShareOne (ESO) wireless digital camera. Together, Kodak, Ketchum, and Concentric Communications brought the Kodak transformation to life for all to experience by creating pop-up Kodak One Galleries in New York City and San Francisco during November 2005. Through a series of private events, daily seminars, media briefings and walk-in traffic, visitors experienced the ESO technology and learned about Kodak’s innovations.”11 Kodak claimed the number one slot in the U.S. digital camera market for the second year in a row in 2005.

Objectives Kodak was one of many players in the digital camera market. Because of Kodak’s long tradition in silver-based photography and its slow movement into the digital world, the business community expressed great skepticism toward its digital plans. Objectives were to 1. Create opportunities for 6,000 consumers and opinion leaders to experience Kodak digital products, including the EasyShare-One. 2. Create awareness that Kodak was a leading player in the digital market.

Tactics 1. Developed “pop-up galleries” to let consumers personally experience Kodak’s ability to work in the digital world. 2. Put pop-up booths in New York and San Francisco. 3. Held launch parties the evening prior to officially opening the Galleries with invitation-only attendance for about 200 professional and local photographers so that they could experience the newest Kodak products and help build buzz. 4. Used direct mail, wild postings, and street marketing to drive visitors to the Gallery. 5. Launched a Gallery photo blog to highlight the daily happenings. 6. Used podcasts of the workshop speakers by putting them on the Kodak Gallery Web site. 7. Opened the doors of the One Galleries to media outlets and various organizations, making the Galleries a “place to be.”

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Part II • The Process

8. Coordinated one-on-one meetings for key media at the Galleries to highlight Kodak’s brand transformation and emphasize ESO as a leader in the future of digital photography. 9. Collected thousands of names and mailing addresses for Kodak’s customer relationship marketing group through in-Gallery interviews and drawings.

Results • • •

•

Kodak captured the top place in the U.S. digital camera market for a second straight year, extending its lead over rivals Canon and Sony. The Galleries received more than 13,000 visitors, including a significant representation from the upbeat urban consumer audience. 1,056 site visits to the NYC One Gallery photo blog, 1,779 site visits to the San Francisco One Gallery photo blog, and 12,500 visitors to the virtual One Gallery pages on Kodak.com during the monthlong event. “The perception of Kodak as a leading digital player is reflected in results from surveys conducted at the One Galleries: over 80% of those surveyed felt that Kodak is bringing years of picture expertise into today’s digital world and nearly 70% of those surveyed agreed that Kodak offers hightech, yet user-friendly digital photography products.”12 prweek named ESO as one of 2005’s top product launches you couldn’t miss.

Sources: David Westenoff, Ketchum West panel in San Jose, CA, on Ketchum Perspectives: Audio Series, 2006; retrieved from www.prfirms.org on March 29, 2008.

Questions 1. What theme would you suggest for this campaign? 2. How could the objectives be made stronger and easier to evaluate? 3. What strategies did they use? 4. What additional strategies would you have suggested? Tactics?

Summar y For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

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Good public relations practice demands good planning. As exciting as they may sound, public relations actions that arise from spur-of-the-moment decisions usually produce short-term gains and long-term losses. Even emergency situations that cannot be predicted must have planned response systems. The process of planning is slow, complex, and frequently boring. However, in public relations, as in other managerial functions, careful planning increases the effectiveness and decreases the frequency of future actions. Adequate planning also establishes a system of goals that can be used to measure public relations success. This aspect of planning is expanded in chapter 8. Planning involves a look at the future. Techniques for beginning the planning process include using existing public opinion surveys, scenario building, and brainstorming. Plans are both single-use (often public relations campaigns) and standing plans such as crisis plans.

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Chapter 6 • Strategic Planning for Public Relations Effectiveness

brainstorming campaign budget formative evaluation goals management by objectives (MBO) mission statement policies prioritize proactive procedures project budget

1. Fran R. Matera and Ray J. Artigue, Public Relations Campaigns and Techniques (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000), p. 103. 2. David M. Dozier, “Planning and Evaluation in PR Practice,” Public Relations Review (Summer 1985), pp. 21–22. 3. Don Clare and Ron Nyham, “A Grand Scan Plan,” Association Management 53 (January 2001), pp. 73–77. 4. L. J. Garrett and M. Silver, Production Management Analysis (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1966), pp. 364–65. 5. Ben & Jerry’s plant in Waterbury, Vermont, June 4, 2002. 6. Sonja L. Myhre and June A. Flora, “HIV/ AIDS Communication Campaigns: Progress and Prospects,” Journal of Health Communication (April–June 2000) (Suppl.), p. 29.

public opinion surveys public relations counselor rules scenario construction single-use plans standing plans strategic plans summative evaluation tactical plans video news release (VNR)

8. James Kauffman, “Adding Fuel to the Fire: NASA’s Crisis Communications Regarding Apollo 1,” Public Relations Review 25 (Winter 1999), p. 421.

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Key Terms

Notes

9. James Kauffman, “A Successful Failure: NASA’s Crisis Communications Regarding Apollo 13,” Public Relations Review 27 (Winter 2001), pp. 437–48. 10. Ryan M. Martin and Lois A. Boynton, “From Liftoff to Landing: NASA’s Crisis Communications and Resulting Media Coverage following the Challenger and Columbia Tragedies,” Public Relations Review 31 (June 2005), pp. 57–58. 11. Retrieved from www.prfirms.org on March 29, 2008. 12. Ibid.

7. Fred R. David, Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases (Upper Saddle River, N.J. Prentice Hall, 2009), p. 146.

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C H A P T E R

4 7

Action and Communication OUTLINE PREVIEW PUBLIC RELATIONS IN ACTION Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 3 Influencing Management Decisions Diffusing Information Facilitating the Adoption Process Designing the Public Relations Matrix THE PRACTITIONER AS A COMMUNICATOR Principles of Effective Writing Media Selection Social Media and “Buzz” HOW TO BE HEARD Attention (Selective Attention) Understanding (Selective Perception) Retention and Action (Selective Retention and Action) CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES

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PREVIEW

f you’re a customer of Netflix, the online movie-rental company, you’re probably aware of its “Profiles” service, which allows customers to create up to five different lists of requested

films with each paid subscription. That means that kids and parents can work through their own separate lists of movies to rent, a plus for many Netflix users. What you might not know is that the idea for “Profiles” came from a blogger, Mike Kaltschnee, who writes the popular Web journal Hacking Netflix. Since the blog came to the company’s attention, Netflix has reached out to forge a positive relationship with Kaltschnee (who was already a fan). The firm has not only adopted the “Profiles” idea but also provides Kaltschnee with timely new-product information and, in turn, mines the discussion that readers post on his blog for customer reactions to and critiques of its services. Sometimes company executives even participate in the conversations, and Netflix employees have been known to use the blog as their home page. The beneficial relationship between Kaltschnee and Netflix could easily have foundered if Netflix had made any public relations missteps along the way. Hacking Netflix is just one example of the way the public relations actions required of modern organizations have grown to include channels of communication unheard of a few years ago. Whatever the communication channel, however, public relations practitioners often use five basic steps to bring new information to their target publics: awareness, interest, evaluation, trials, and adoption. First the organization identifies the appropriate channel (which might even include a fan blog); then it can take the appropriate communication steps to relay the message. Writing is the primary tool for constructing the message, and writing well is a critical skill for public relations practitioners. This chapter focuses on the link between action and communication and introduces ways to get the message heard. 135

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Part II • The Process

Early in the 20th century, Ivy Lee, one of the “founding fathers” of public relations, emphasized the importance of counseling management to take responsible action before beginning the communication process. The public relations practitioner, as part of the management team of an organization, must be involved in the decisionmaking process to ensure that management makes decisions to take positive action steps to resolve a problem or to create an opportunity. Once the organization has taken responsible actions, the public relations staff may communicate with a target audience to induce desired behavioral outcomes. For example, Standard Oil of California took immediate action to let the public know that it would spend whatever was necessary to clean up a massive oil spill in the San Francisco Bay after two of its tankers collided. The company followed up on its promise and cleaned up the bay. San Francisco papers editorialized that the “beaches had never been cleaner before.” 1 Traditionally, public relations action has included communication in some form, often a publicity release for print media. The world has changed, though, and so has the practice of public relations. Technology has impacted the types of media that practitioners must work with, requiring organizations to have a wider range of possible action alternatives from their public relations staffs. Today crisis situations, as well as many of the planned public relations programs, must make use of new technologies, such as satellite transmissions of video news releases (VNRs), video interviews and other live news transmission on the Internet, and Web sites. PepsiCo, for example, used VNRs and video interviews as a major tool in combating a crisis of national scope when a claim was made that a foreign object was found in an unopened Diet Pepsi can in Tacoma, Washington. See mini-case 7.1. Large organizations with access to modern technology are not the only ones that require a variety of response mechanisms. Cedar Springs Community Hospital took several action steps, none of them press releases. Although much of that action involved written communication, several important steps centered on managerial decision making.

PUBLIC RELATIONS IN ACTION

Integrating Case Study

Cedar Springs Community Hospital Segment 3

Action Implementation In chapter 6, goals, objectives, and basic strategies were developed for solving the hospital’s problem. Next, the public relations staff turned its attention to the execution of those plans. It was clear from the patient surveys that the hospital’s primary goal of quality patient care was already being achieved. Therefore, strategies were developed to try to improve employee and physician perceptions of the hospital’s performance. The two basic strategies for which action steps needed to be developed were (1) reinforcement of employee feelings of worth as members of the medical team and (2) increase in feedback from patients. Several tactics were implemented to address these needs.

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Chapter 7 • Action and Communication

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Employee Team A theme was developed to increase all employees’ awareness of their value as members of the medical team at Cedar Springs Hospital. The theme “Quality People, Quality Care” was communicated to employees, physicians, and other publics through six media: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Theme signs were placed over the entrances to all three main buildings. Mailing panels were printed for all publications. Birthday cards for employees were redesigned. Special employee name badges were designed for those employees who had passed the 90-day probationary period, designating them as “Quality Providers.” 5. T-shirts were printed with the theme and used as gifts for participating in the personnel department’s annual Benefits Fair. 6. Photos of employees who received honors were placed on the hospital’s Web site with a note about the honor. Doctors were also honored on the Web with special notes from patients. Hospital management also wanted to make a very public statement about the quality of the employees and their work. Thus, an existing program, “Employee of the Month,” was revitalized. To give the recognition more visibility among patients, physicians, and the general public, a 24-inch display ad appeared in the local newspaper every month, featuring an honored employee, the “Quality People, Quality Care” theme, and a link to the hospital Web site with more information about the employee.

Patient Feedback Three primary methods were used to increase feedback from patients to the hospital staff. First, the survey of recently released patients was repeated quarterly. Survey results were disseminated in various ways, such as using the hospital newsletter, table tents in the staff cafeteria, and e-mail. In addition, a contest was begun in which employees tried to guess the survey results before they were published. Second, positive letters from former patients were disseminated among the hospital employees. Third, a regular feature called “Worth Sharing” was begun in the monthly newsletter to highlight patient success stories. It was also placed on the hospital Web site.

Influencing Management Decisions When it was ﬁrst proposed that the new theme be placed over the entrances to the main buildings, many employees reacted negatively, believing that “advertising” was too commercial for a medical facility. An ad hoc committee of department managers investigated the complaints and made recommendations regarding use of the theme. The committee eventually recommended placing it above the entrances and sold the employees on the integrity of the idea. This group also suggested using the theme only on the nametags of employees who had passed the 90-day review period.

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Mini Case 7.1 ●

It began in Seattle when a TV station informed the local Pepsi franchise bottler that an 82-year-old Tacoma man had found a hypodermic needle in a can of Diet Pepsi. The report was broadcast that evening on the local news. It would be the nation’s top story for the next 96 hours. Within hours another syringe turned up in a can in another locality. Soon news broadcasts from around the country had reports of people finding needles in Pepsi cans.2 Eventually, more than 50 allegations were made in 23 states.3 Pepsi Cola set up a crisis management team at its corporate headquarters in Somers, New York. The team was led by Craig Weatherup, Pepsi president. Rebecca Madeira, Pepsi vice president for public affairs, directed the team’s actions and coordinated the communications so the company could speak with one voice. First, the Pepsi crisis team had to determine if the Pepsi bottlers were the problem. The crisis response plan had these key points: • Put public safety first. Assess the problem through the public’s eyes. Be clear that their needs and concerns come first. • Find it. Fix it. Work around the clock with regulatory officials to investigate every aspect of the plant operation to identify and, if possible, correct the problem.

The Pepsi Hoax

• Communicate quickly and frequently, using tools and timetables reporters use. • Take responsibility for solving the crisis. Don’t point fingers, assign blame, or pass the buck. Make your team accountable for a swift and sound resolution to the problem.4 Once Pepsi had gathered its facts and felt secure that this was not a problem caused by its bottlers, Pepsi took the offensive. President Weatherup said repeatedly through the media, “A can is the most tamper-proof packaging in food supply. We are 99.99 percent certain that this didn’t happen in Pepsi plants.”5 The crisis team decided to use VNRs to show consumers that Pepsi’s canning process could not be tampered with. High-tech, high-speed equipment was shown filling Pepsi cans. Each can was turned upside down, cleaned with a powerful jet of air or water, inverted, filled, and closed—all in less than one second! Video footage of the canning process was beamed by satellite to TV stations across the country. Within 48 hours the first VNR was seen by 296 million viewers, three times the number that usually watches the Super Bowl. The company used the video to combat the visual images of the syringes that had constantly been shown on network television since the first

instance in Seattle. Pepsi created three more VNRs within three days. By the end of the week, the president had appeared on a dozen network TV news shows and talk shows, and Pepsi spokespersons had conducted more than 2,000 interviews with newspapers, magazines, and TV and radio reporters. The strategy was to show the public that what was happening was really a hoax rather than a problem with Pepsi bottlers. The real turning point came with the third VNR. It showed a tape from an in-store surveillance camera that had filmed a shopper slipping a syringe into an open Diet Pepsi can while the cashier’s back was turned. Pepsi could not release the tape, though, until the next day when an arrest was made. After the third VNR ran, viewers were overwhelmingly supportive of Pepsi. The evaluation done indicated that Pepsi’s response worked. Sales for the key July 4 period were not affected adversely, which was quite important. Questions 1. Were the communication tools used by Pepsi to solve the problem the ones you would use today? 2. Evaluate the role of the VNRs. Are they always effective?

Management decision making was again the principal action leading to the wider distribution of letters of appreciation from patients. This relatively simple action required a change in organizational policy that could have been politically explosive. A policy change of this type could have alienated both the personnel manager and the department managers if not handled carefully. The public relations manager needed a good understanding of both communication and organizational dynamics to accomplish this objective. Such letters had traditionally been routed to the personnel department and then to the manager of the department involved. This meant that for a department to get any recognition, it would have to appear to “blow its own horn.” Therefore, most letters of appreciation had been handled internally, without informing the rest of the organization. The private nature of this process worked against the new objective of improving employee perceptions by sharing patient feedback. Thus, the policy was changed so that the original letter was routed ﬁrst to public relations where copies were made not only for the appropriate department manager but also human resources. Some letters were featured on the hospital Web site. 138

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Diffusing Information Although managerial decision making was one of the public relations actions used in the Cedar Springs case, the primary action process can be described as the diffusion of information. More often than not, the action implemented to accomplish a public relations plan can be explained as an attempt to spread information within a target audience. Selecting a Target Audience The action process begins and ends with target audiences. Once each public is identified, its characteristics can be studied, and a critical path of influence can be planned for the issue in question. When considering the individual characteristics of each target audience, it is helpful to categorize them as (1) primary, intervening, or moderating and as (2) latent, aware, or active. A primary public is the group to which the action is ultimately directed. As we have shown, however, the critical path to this group frequently requires that other audiences be addressed. Individuals in intervening publics have direct contact with the primary audience and can pass messages along to them. All the channels of influence except personal experience may be intervening publics. Moderating publics are groups that share a common goal or guiding philosophy and can make an impact on the primary public. These groups usually have high credibility with the primary public in specific topic areas.6 Only mass media and personal experience do not have the potential to be moderating publics. As you will recall from our discussion in chapter 5, a latent public is not aware of a need to change or act. An aware public recognizes a need but is not prone to any action, such as accepting a new idea. An active public is aware and ready to do something. This classification system helps determine the extent to which a given public is ready and able to respond to any planned action.

Marchers attempt to make people aware of their issues.

The Diffusion Process Diffusion is a term used to describe the way in which new ideas are adopted in a society. Sociologists and communication researchers have long been fascinated by the paths that innovations follow as they make their way through a social system. Publics or target audiences are social systems that public relations practitioners seek to influence. Therefore, it is important that our knowledge about the diffusion of information be applied to the public relations process. (See chapter 3 where this theory is discussed.) Critical Paths Those who study the diffusion process through which new products, ideas, and technologies spread have identified five steps that describe how people are influenced to change: 1.

Awareness. People become aware of the idea or practice, although their knowledge is limited. This awareness is often spread through the mass media. Interest. People begin to develop an interest in the idea and seek more information about it. Again, the mass media are especially important in providing the information to large audiences in this step of the diffusion process.

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Evaluation. People begin to mentally apply the idea to their individual situations. Simultaneously, they obtain more information and make a decision to try the new idea. Trials. At this point, actual application begins, usually on a small scale. Potential adopters are primarily interested in the practice, techniques, and conditions necessary for application. Adoption. Once the idea is proven worthwhile, it is adopted by the target audiences.7

Channels of Influence Researchers have tracked innovations through the adoption process and concluded that they use ﬁve basic channels of inﬂuence: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mass media. Electronic and print media such as radio, television, newspapers, and magazines. Biased intermediaries. Individuals or groups that stand to beneﬁt from another’s adoption (such as salespeople). Unbiased third parties. Consumer groups, government agencies, and other groups or individuals that have credibility. Signiﬁcant others. Friends, relatives, and others who are admired by potential adopters. Personal experience. Actual use of the innovation.

In the early stages of awareness and interest, mass media are most effective. In the critical stages of evaluation and trial, however, emphasis shifts to the influence of significant others. Finally, at the point of adoption, personal experience becomes the primary channel. The secondary, or support, path begins with significant others, moving to unbiased third parties at the evaluation and trial stages and then back again to significant others at adoption.

Facilitating the Adoption Process The public relations practitioner can apply the critical path approach by attempting to create awareness and interest through press releases and other media coverage. From the start of the campaign, the practitioner should plan to communicate with other publics that are significant to the target audience. When the initial goals of awareness and interest are reached, public relations actions should move away from the obvious to more subtle forms of communication through significant others and unbiased third parties. After the evaluation and trial stages are passed, success can be measured by the extent to which the target public accepts the new idea. Pressure and Special Interest Groups Traditionally, a great deal of public relations practice has been based on a generally accepted two-step flow of information theory. This theory is built on the premise that certain people in our society are opinion leaders. Therefore, if those opinion leaders can be convinced to support a certain matter, they will influence others to support it also. For example, if ministers in your community strongly support a new senior center in town, as opinion leaders they are likely to have a great deal of influence on a number of their church members. The strategy, then, may be to use this two-step flow of information to convince the ministers that the senior center is good and to get them to encourage support from their membership. Although the two-step flow theory contains a great deal of truth, both research and practice have shown that it is too simplistic. The theory allows for only two levels

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(leaders and followers) in any influence attempt. Further, it presumes a linear flow of information through a social system. From our discussion of systems theory and the diffusion process in chapter 3, it should be apparent that society is much more complex. Thus, some researchers now use a multi-step flow theory to describe the process. This multi-step process is similar to the two-step flow, but instead of attempting to reach one target group who will in turn reach the ultimate audience, this theory suggests that the minister in our example might be only one opinion leader who might be used to influence other opinion leaders. He or she might influence several key church members who in turn might have more direct influence on others. Thus, the minister might influence the bankers, the doctors, the teachers, and the secretaries. In turn, these people would serve as opinion leaders for their small sphere of influence, ultimately reaching the larger target audience and convincing the community as a whole to support increased taxation for a new senior center. When Mountain Bell decided to introduce Local Measured Service in the Phoenix area, the media devoted a great deal of coverage toward describing the advantages of the new system.8 Because of the favorable publicity, the telephone company felt confident when the issue came up for approval by the Arizona Corporate Commission. When Mountain Bell representatives arrived at the hearing, however, they found senior citizens crowded into the chambers and other seniors picketing outside to protest the innovation. Obviously, one important public in the Phoenix area, senior citizens, had not adopted the idea. After its first request was turned down, the phone company began to work with senior citizen groups to win support from significant others and unbiased third parties. The proposal was approved without protest the next time it came before the commission. To secure the cooperation of various publics, Mountain Bell used an action strategy known as stakeholder analysis. Stakeholder Analysis The concept of stakeholder management provides a more realistic framework for an organization to visualize its environment. Stakeholder analysis is a method for differentiating among publics. Stakeholders are those individuals who perceive themselves as having an interest in the actions of an organization. They may be customers, shareholders, employees, or just members of society. They generally express themselves through groups that share a common purpose, such as environmental or consumer causes. Applying the stakeholder management approach to public relations practice allows actions to be organized around an entire system of stakeholder groups. The goal is maximum overall cooperation between the stakeholders and the organization’s objectives. To accomplish this, strategies are designed to deal simultaneously with issues that affect multiple groups. The stakeholder process does not fundamentally change public relations communication or other action processes. Instead, it organizes them for more efficient use. Stakeholder management can determine who should be the object of an action step, what that action should be, what results should be sought, and how each element will fit into the overall plan. Traditionally, many public relations activities were managed through delivery systems like news bureaus, speakers’ bureaus, and complaint departments. Because these focus on a single action, they have difficulty recognizing the differences among publics. In a stakeholder management system, however, action for each public is planned separately. The needs and interests of a given stakeholder group determine what actions are appropriate and how they should be implemented.

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When Mountain Bell managers ﬁrst attempted to begin Local Measured Service, they were trying to reach all consumers through the same action strategies. Further analysis led them to realize that the task required a more complex view of their publics. Stakeholders who needed to be considered in the Local Measured Service issue included the following: 1. 2.

3. 4.

Internal stakeholders. Employees and shareholders. Residence stakeholders. Consumer advocates, persons with disabilities, minorities, low-income segments, senior citizens, volunteer and service groups, educational organizations. Business stakeholders. Those dependent on telemarketing, small businesses, large businesses. Other stakeholders. Media, government, the Arizona Corporate Commission.9

Each stakeholder group was assigned to a project manager. These practitioners became familiar with the needs and interests of the groups assigned to them and worked with functional departments such as media relations, the speakers’ bureau, internal publications, and others to target messages to their audiences.

Designing the Public Relations Matrix After the appropriate channels of inﬂuence are determined and target audiences selected, messages are prepared within basic action categories. In a large organization, these functional areas, or subspecialties, within public relations are sometimes performed by different departments. Even if they are handled by one person, each action category must produce a distinct message. Frequently, different media are used as well. This creates a series of crossover or matrix relationships between target audiences and messages. Table 7.1 illustrates the relationships between some of Mountain Bell’s target audiences (stakeholders) and the action categories used to respond to the situation. In the case of Mountain Bell’s response to the Local Measured Service protest, each target audience was assigned to a practitioner, while each action category was the responsibility of a functional department. For any message, at least two members of the public relations staff would be responsible for its design and implementation. For example, a news release prepared by the press relations group could have been initiated by the residential or business consumer manager and closely reviewed by other TABLE 7.1

Public Relations Matrix for Mountain Bell Target Audiences Media

Residential Customers

Employees

Business

Government

News Releases

Intervening

Primary

Moderating

Primary

Moderating

Speakers’ Bureau

Intervening

Primary

Moderating

Primary

Moderating

Internal Publications External Publications Advocacy Advertising

Primary Primary

Moderating

Primary

Moderating

Primary

Moderating

Primary

Moderating

Communication actions are on the left vertical axis, and the publics are across the top horizontally. Source: Reprinted through courtesy of Mountain Bell.

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managers for potential impact on media, employee, and government stakeholders. Under this system, messages are prepared for primary audiences and checked for their desired effect on moderating and intervening audiences. This system allows functional specialists such as writers and editors to continue performing their tasks, while project managers assume the responsibility for making sure all messages received by their publics are prepared according to the public relations plan. A single manager can be responsible for supervising contacts with several publics in more than one project. These responsibilities change as projects are completed and new ones are added. We began this chapter by illustrating the variety of action steps posTHE PRACTITIONER AS sible from a single public relations plan. Although the actions that A COMMUNICATOR might be used are virtually limitless, one remains predominant. The ability to write effectively continues to be a primary skill demanded by those who employ public relations practitioners.10 Just as communication is the primary action step in a public relations plan, writing is the principal tool for constructing messages. Even messages that are primarily visual, like videotape or slide presentations, generally require well-written directions or a script. Web pages also rely on the effectiveness of the written word for maximum impact. Writing for the Internet often means using keywords to drive search engines. While the use of embedded links and the compartmentalization of the screen into various messages bring different challenges, they must be met with clear, effective writing. Policies and other decisions are written as they are developed, transmitted, and preserved. Therefore, writing is a basic skill needed by all public relations professionals, regardless of the type or size of the organizations in which they work.

Principles of Effective Writing Some people are born with an exceptional talent that cannot be explained or taught. The Ernest Hemingways of this world may not need to learn the principles of effective writing, but few of us are exceptionally gifted artists. Most people have to learn the craft of writing through study, practice, and hard work—that’s the bad news. The good news is that effective writing can be learned. People of average talent can learn to write effectively by practicing some basic principles. See spotlight 7.1 and appendix 1. Packaging Ideas The length of sentences in a written document is widely recognized as a key to its clarity. Many of the readability formulas use sentence length as their basis of measurement. Distinguished educator and journalist Harold Davis often tells the story of a journalist working with the American Press Institute in the late 1940s and early 1950s who helped ﬁrmly establish the link between clarity and length. James H. Couey Jr., of the Birmingham News helped conduct seminars for working journalists at Columbia University. Before a seminar began, he would ask each participant to send him a sample of his or her writing so he could test it. Couey repeated his test with dozens of articles. The results were always the same. A sentence is a package for ideas, and readers must struggle to get huge, bulky packages into their minds. By simply making the sentences shorter, he achieved large gains in understanding. Couey continued to investigate the short sentence phenomenon and discovered some interesting facts:

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Spotlight 7.1 The following tips can help just about everyone to effectively communicate technical and nontechnical information in letters, reports, news stories, booklets, and most other media that use the written word: 1. Use short, simple words. Prefer the simple to the complex. For example, write “use,” not “utilize,” in most situations. 2. Use short, simple sentences and paragraphs. Research shows the average sentence length should be 20 words or less.

1. 2. 3.

Tips for Effective Writing

3. Write in the active, not the passive, voice. The exception to this rule is if you need to emphasize the receiver of the action. 4. Avoid slang and jargon. It makes copy more difficult for a mass audience to comprehend. For example, English is a second language for many, and they, as well as others, have considerable difficulty understanding slang and jargon. 5. Use adjectives and adverbs sparingly.

6. Be brief. For example, keep most news releases to one or two typewritten pages. 7. Be specific. Don’t communicate in generalities, but be as concrete as possible. 8. Cite reasons for your opinions. Support your contentions with statistics, facts, and statements from impartial sources to provide credibility.

Short sentences usually contained only one idea each. A story could contain both long and short sentences for variety, as long as the average was short. The optimum average for most sentences seemed to be about 17 words.11

Pyramid Power Couey achieved tremendous gains in understanding by simply shortening sentences, but he never taught that sentence length was the only element in effective writing. Organization is another important skill that must be mastered. Journalists often use the inverted pyramid style of writing (figure 7.1). This method organizes a story so the most important points are covered first. The inverted pyramid is equally useful for other types of informative writing. A message should begin by answering five questions: who, what, when, where, and why? These questions are answered in the first one or two paragraphs, called the lead. Journalists begin with the question that is most important to the message and proceed in descending order. Each successive FIGURE 7.1 Inverted paragraph contains details that are less important than the previous paragraph. Pyramid Form Public relations practitioners must master various writing styles. To be an effective communicator it is often necessary to blend seemingly disparate styles to serve mulLead paragraph(s) tiple purposes for multiple audiences.12 No matter the style, however, using the inverted pyramid offers several advantages. First, it puts the most important details near the beginning, where readers who skim the message will be more Body of article likely to see them. Second, an editor may cut the story from the bottom up if necessary without losing important details. Third, a strong opening gets readers’ attention and directs them into the rest of the message. Concluding paragraphs (may be cut to fit story to space)

Media Selection Various media and their audiences are discussed in detail in part 3, but it is appropriate at this point to outline a strategy for media selection. Although it is necessary to construct messages carefully so they communicate the desired meaning to an audience, it is equally important to choose the

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Internet Writing Guidelines 1. Don’t build a site for your executives; they aren’t the target audience. Know the characteristics of your target audience and write for them. 2. Establish and present a logical progression of the ideas. 3. Put blocks of no more than 75 words each on initial site pages. Longer text farther into the site is fine. 4. Don’t use clever headlines, but structure your articles with several levels of headlines so a reader can complete a section and continue reading or choose to move on.

Spotlight 7.2

5. Write 50 percent less at the beginning of an article. Most Internet users scan copy before deciding to spend time in depth to read an article. 6. Highlight keywords through hypertext links, typeface variations, or color. 7. Use bulleted lists when the copy makes this possible. The computer screen is small, and people tend to glance at key elements quickly. 8. Use inverted pyramid style for most copy with the most important information first. Don’t bury your key points.

9. Use one main idea per paragraph. 10. Keep your sentences short, but on the other hand, remember that the key to a good Web site is that you have provided the answers to the questions that the reader has, so you need to be thorough.

Source: Stephen Dembner, “Web Writer Pro: In Search of a Functional Model for Effective Text on the World Wide Web,” unpublished master’s thesis, University of Memphis, May 2000.

proper medium to carry them. For purposes of discussion, media may be classified as controlled or uncontrolled. The preparation of a news release is different from the preparation of an advertising message, because news depends on a third party to select and deliver the message. This is the basic difference between controlled and uncontrolled media. Controlled media, including internal publications, direct mail, posters, and advertising, allow the public relations practitioner to dictate what is published and how it is delivered to the primary audience. Uncontrolled media, for which someone else makes decisions about content, include newspapers, television, and radio. Two controlled media have become especially important to public relations campaigns in the last few years: the World Wide Web and advertising. The World Wide Web can be considered the first public relations mass medium because it allows managed communication to flow directly between organizations and mass audiences without the gate-keeping functions present in other mass media.13 For this reason, writing for the Internet requires some special rules, as outlined in spotlight 7.2 and spotlight 7.3.

With advertising messages, you have a “controlled” medium and can be assured your message will run as you desired.

Social Media and “Buzz” The intersection of the Web and “word of mouth” or “buzz” in online communication has created a powerful public relations tool. Online conversations regarding a consumer brand usually reference some form of traditional media showing that traditional media (table 7.2) are among the most important tools available for driving word-of-mouth or buzz. Social media such as Facebook, YouTube, and Wikipedia have become major ways to reach word-of-mouth inﬂuencers who help create buzz around any topic. 145

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Spotlight 7.3 Design Considerations 1. Start simple: Begin with a simple Web site design. 2. Strive for consistency: Consistency helps users find information. 3. Avoid textured and colored backgrounds: Make sure your copy is legible. 4. Use blue links: Blue hypertext links are the convention. 5. Avoid clickable links in graphic designs: Users often miss embedded links. 6. Use informative links: Describe pages so users can decide whether they should click on it or not. 7. Use narrow text columns: Column widths of 200 to 400 pixels make reading easier and faster. 8. Minimize page scrolling: Use 20to 44-line pages. 9. Provide navigational aids: Add “Return to Home Page” and other key links. 10. Have fast download times: Keep your download times short. 11. Provide a text-only version: Not all users, or computers, are of equal ability. 12. Include key information: Be sure to identify your site and provide contact information.

33 Guidelines for Effective Web Sites Based upon Usability Research

13. Minimize typographical cues: Avoid overusing italics or bold type. Other General Considerations 14. Identify your audience: Design for specific users. Take their systems into account. 15. Use the team approach: Use ideas from several people whenever possible to design your site. 16. Know your users: Ask, “What are my users like?” 17. Follow your organization’s Web policy: Use the Web in an efficient, ethical, and legal manner. 18. Respect copyright guidelines: Obtain written permission to use others’ work. 19. Use relative URLs: It will make site maintenance easier. 20. Include a meta tag: Help Web users and search engines find your site. 21. Test your site: Make sure your site works and will download quickly. 22. Understand cognitive processes: Communication is a cognitive activity.

24. Delete prepositional phrases: Fewer prepositions shorten sentences. 25. Delete excess clauses: Clauses add length but not meaning. 26. Write concisely: Concise sentences promote understanding. 27. Use strong verbs and release trapped verbs: Write clearly and to the point. 28. Use short words: Easy-tounderstand words are better. 29. Delete unnecessary qualifiers: Qualify only when necessary. 30. Eliminate wordiness: Fewer words reduce confusion. 31. Use specific, concrete words: Make your message clear. 32. Avoid jargon: Use terms your readers understand. 33. Replace clichés: Clichés can be distracting. Source: Kirk Hallahan, “Improving Public Relations Web Sites Through Usability Research,” Public Relations Review 27 (Summer 2001), p. 229.

Writing Considerations 23. Write in active voice: Readers understand active voice better.

Preliminary studies suggest ﬁve guidelines for building relationships with publics using Internet technology: 1.

2. 3.

Create a dialogic loop to allow and encourage publics to query the organization sponsoring the site. This includes the availability of an adequate and well-trained staff to handle responses. Make the information useful to all publics who may use the site. Even a specialized Web site should have some general use information. Make information easy to get. Focus on the generation of return visits through the use of interactive strategies. Forums, question-and-answer formats, and chats with experts or corporate ofﬁcers tend to build visit frequency. Develop an intuitive ease to the interface. The focus of Web sites should be on the organization, product, or information located there and not on the “bells and whistles” that make it possible. Web sites with graphics that take too long to load may turn off some visitors. The conservation of visitors should have priority over providing links to other sites. Too many links to other related sites too early in the design can take visitors away from your Web site before they have the chance to build a relationship.14

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Many of these principles can also be applied to make an organization’s in-house computer network or “intranet” more effective.15 Blogging poses both a new challenge and an opportunity for public relations practice. Many are predicting that the Web log phenomenon will forever change public relations as companies come to realize that they will be expected to engage their customers and employees in two-way conversations in real time. Already, a handful of senior executives, including Bob Luty, vice chair of General Motors, and Jonathan Schwartz, CEO at Sun Microsystems, are active bloggers.16 Schwartz’s blog (blogs.sun.com /jonathan) averages 400,000 hits a month and each of his posts results in dozens of comments from customers, shareholders, and others.17 Before launching a corporate blog, ■

■

■ ■

Determine the corporation’s goal. Internal blogs serve a different purpose from public ones. Learn the rules. Blogging is a new form of two-way communication characterized by an informal tone, timely updates, and frank discussion. Make sure to devote the time and/or resources to keep the blog up-to-date. Study the legal ramiﬁcations of launching a blog and establish guidelines so that executives and employees understand what material is off-limits.18

Increasingly, the lines between public relations and advertising are blurred in an effort to communicate as effectively as possible. Public relations practitioners often use advertising as a campaign element to accomplish one or more of the following objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Develop awareness of an organization. Tie a diverse product line together. Improve consumer relations. Improve the organization’s image. Take a stand on a public issue.19

The three basic considerations for media selection are the audiences, the timing, and the budget available. Audiences Audiences must be the first consideration in any public relations effort (see chapter 5). It is necessary to identify the publics you are trying to reach and determine what will interest them. Uncontrolled media present a special problem to the public relations practitioner because publicity releases must be planned for two audiences. The primary audience, the public for whom the message is intended, is the most important; however, the editor or reporter who selects or rejects the release for publication or broadcast is the first hurdle. Thus, although the release is designed to communicate a particular message to the primary audience, it must first attract the journalistic attention of an editor. After determining the target audience, it is next necessary to know which media are likely to be interested in particular types of information. By researching available media carefully, a public relations practitioner can become familiar with the types of stories they use and the audiences they attract. He or she may then select the best media for each release and package the information in a way that will attract the editor’s attention. Chapter 9 discusses various strategies for media relations in greater detail. Timing The timing necessary to reach an audience is the second important factor in media selection. Once the appropriate media are chosen, the time required to reach

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TABLE 7.2

Principal Media: Advantages and Disadvantages

Medium

Advantages

Disadvantages

Television

1. Combines sight, sound, and motion attributes 2. Permits physical demonstration of product 3. Believability due to immediacy of message 4. High impact of message 5. Huge audiences 6. Good product identification 7. Popular medium

1. Message limited by restricted time segments 2. No possibility for consumer referral to message 3. Availabilities sometimes difficult to arrange 4. High time costs 5. Waste coverage 6. High production costs 7. Poor color transmission

Magazines

1. Selectivity of audience 2. Reaches more affluent consumers 3. Offers prestige to an advertiser 4. Pass-along readership 5. Good color reproduction

1. Often duplicate circulation 2. Usually cannot dominate in a local market 3. Sometimes high production costs 4. Long closing dates 5. No immediacy of message

Radio

1. Selectivity of geographical markets 2. Good saturation of local markets 3. Ease of changing advertising copy 4. Relatively low cost

1. Message limited by restricted time segments 2. No possibility for consumer referral to message 3. No visual appeal 4. Waste coverage

Newspapers

1. Selectivity of geographical markets 2. Ease of changing advertising copy 3. Reaches all income groups 4. Ease of scheduling advertisem*nts 5. Relatively low cost 6. Good medium for manufacturer/dealer advertising

1. High cost for national coverage 2. Shortness of message life 3. Waste circulation 4. Differences of sizes and formats 5. Rate differentials between local and national markets 6. Poor color reproduction

Direct Mail

1. Extremely selective 2. Message can be very personalized 3. Little competition with other advertisem*nts 4. Easy to measure effect of advertisem*nts 5. Provides easy means for consumer action

1. Often has poor image 2. Can be quite expensive 3. Many restrictive postal regulations 4. Problems in maintaining mailing lists

Outdoor Posters (stationary panels)

1. Selectivity of geographical markets 2. High repetitive value 3. Large physical size 4. Relatively low cost 5. Good color reproduction

1. Often has poor image 2. Message must be short 3. Waste circulation 4. National coverage is expensive 5. Few creative specialists

Point-of-Purchase 1. Presents message at point of sale Displays 2. Great flexibility for creativity 3. Ability to demonstrate product in use 4. Good color reproduction 5. Repetitive value

1. Dealer apathy in installation 2. Long production period 3. High unit cost 4. Shipping problems 5. Space problem

Transit Posters (on moving vehicles)

1. Selectivity of geographical markets 2. Captive audience 3. Very low cost 4. Good color reproduction 5. High repetitive value

1. Limited to a certain class of consumers 2. Waste circulation 3. Surroundings are disreputable 4. Few creative specialists

Movie Trailers

1. Selectivity of geographical markets 2. Captive audience 3. Large physical size 4. Good medium for manufacturer/ dealer advertising

1. Cannot be employed in all theaters 2. Waste circulation 3. High production costs 4. No possibility for consumer referral to message

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Medium

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advertising Specialties

1. Unique presentation 2. High repetitive value 3. Has a “gift” quality 4. Relatively long life

1. Subject to fads 2. Message must be short 3. May have relatively high unit cost 4. Effectiveness difficult to measure

Pamphlets and Booklets

1. Offer detailed message at point of sale 2. Supplement a personal sales presentation 3. Offer to potential buyers a good referral means 4. Good color reproduction

1. Dealers often fail to use 2. May have a relatively high unit cost 3. Few creative specialists 4. Effectiveness difficult to measure

149

Source: Reprinted by permission of Publishing Horizons, Inc., from Advertising Campaigns, Formulations and Tactics, by Quera, pp. 71–74.

the primary audience is critical. Some publications have backlogs of material and may not be able to get a story out in time. Therefore, the question of when the primary audience receives the message may be just as important as whether it receives the message at all. Budgets Budgets, the third important factor in media selection, are always limited, and frequently they, in turn, limit media selection. Usually the ﬁrst decision that must be made is whether the message needs to be delivered by more than one medium. If a media mix is desirable, it may be necessary to consider cost when deciding which ones to use. Remember that while the costs of controlled media, such as advertising, are obvious, costs associated with uncontrolled media must also be counted. Table 7.2 contrasts advantages and disadvantages of several different media. Considering these points with regard to audiences, time, and budget will help public relations practitioners select the media most appropriate to their messages.

There are times when we not only want to be heard, but we also need to HOW be heard. Our message needs to be heard because our organizations may want to inﬂuence legislation, create goodwill among various publics, provide answers in times of crises, attract capable employees, increase sales, or raise money. There are many more reasons why we need to make sure our message is heard and acted upon, but these illustrate the variety of the reasons organizations must communicate with target audiences. How, though, can your message be heard and acted upon? Much like passing through a funnel, the message must pass through four basic stages in which the audience may selectively decide whether to be involved with the communication: 1. 2. 3. 4.

TO BE HEARD

Attention Understanding Retention Action

Each of the stages must be understood and used if you are to have your message really heard.20

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Attention (Selective Attention) The various publics with which an organization needs to communicate attend to only a few of the messages that they are bombarded with daily. This is called selective attention. For your message to be heard, it must ﬁrst be attended to. It is necessary to analyze the stakeholders from the stakeholders’ point of view. What will attract their attention? What do we know about them that will help build rapport with them? For example, though the issues may be the same, it may take different messages to reach legislators than it does to reach newspaper editors. Selective attention is a communication concept often overlooked by those who would rather have a “low-key” approach to public relations. However, at times it is necessary to attract attention. On those occasions it may be helpful, even essential, to have a positive image. Like it or not, every group, organization, and individual has an image. Some images are good, some are not quite so good. But images are important to getting attention. Image building involves practically every part of your organization’s activities and is often what is seen as “total communication.” This is a ﬁrst step. Beyond image building, getting audiences to attend to your messages involves both the mechanics and the content of your message. For example, the way you package your message to the chair of the Senate Subcommittee on Price Controls may determine whether your message is attended to. Some of the mechanical factors affecting attention to the message may include timing, setting, and authority. For instance, do you send out a news release about the importance of the independent petroleum marketers just after a price increase has gone into effect? Or would it be more effective to issue that release some months before the price increase? Do you send the release out single spaced, 12 pages in length on both sides of hot pink paper (setting)? Do you use sources (authority) that only you know are experts in their disciplines?

Understanding (Selective Perception) The content of the message determines not only whether the message is attended to, but, to a great extent, whether it is understood. Our experiences and our role in society (or frame of reference) shape the way we perceive things. But no one has had identical experiences. Each of us is unique. So each of us perceives things slightly differently. Result: Our unconscious assumption is that the world is as we see it. We tend to believe the way we see things is “correct” and that those who don’t share our perceptions are “incorrect” or have “distorted views,” as shown in ﬁgure 7.2.

Message sender

Message receiver

FIGURE 7.2 Communication Barrier: Difference

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Thus, the major obstacles in communication are the failure to acknowledge differences and the failure to successfully negotiate those differences in perceptions. Is your experience more “true” than the experience of others? From a communication viewpoint, the perceptions of each of us are “true” because they reﬂect what we know and what we are. If you had someone else’s frame of reference, you might see things exactly as he or she does. Consider the following cases: 1.

Though messages may be sent in ﬁgure 7.3, no communication occurs (hence, no understanding) because there is no shared experience.

My Frame of Reference

Your Frame of Reference

FIGURE 7.3 No Communication

Some understanding begins to occur in ﬁgure 7.4, however, because there is a common or shared frame of reference (shaded area).

My Frame of Reference

Your Frame of Reference

FIGURE 7.4 Communication Occurs in the Shaded Area

How do we find common or shared frames of reference? We must find out what other people think and why they think that way. Why? So you can attack the problem— send the message in the context of your message receiver’s frame of reference (his or her knowledge, social-cultural role, attitudes, communication skills, needs, wants), not yours. The reason you are communicating is that his or her frame of reference is different from yours. The objective is to understand your receiver’s perceptions—not so you can change them or criticize them, but in order to broaden them so he or she has an understanding of your selective perceptions and thus has a better ability to support, or at least to not obstruct, the fulfilling of your objectives. For example, look at legislative issues from the view of the legislator and other groups seeking his or her support, not from your view. You find your stakeholders’ frames of references through research, both formal and informal.

Retention and Action (Selective Retention and Action) A message may be attended to and understood, but it must still be retained in order to be acted upon. Retention and the desire to act are increased if the message receiver can answer the following questions:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What’s in it for me? Is it compatible with my values, needs, and beliefs? Is it easy to remember and do? (Divide complex issues into a number of simple issues.) Is it easy to try with little or no risk? Can I observe the consequences of my actions? Is my action positively reinforced by subsequent messages?

Even the most effective communicators don’t successfully communicate all the time. Many factors of which we are unaware, or over which we have no control, may distort our messages. But by conscientiously applying the principles of communication, the percentage of success will increase.

University Hospital

Case Study

niversity Hospital, located in a city of about 1.2 million people, is the largest private hospital in the United States, with more than 2,000 beds and just over 50,000 patients annually. The hospital employs 6,000 persons and has a medical staff of more than 1,300 and an annual budget of more than $750 million. Like all hospitals, University Hospital has faced tough financial challenges in the era of managed health care. As the hospital prepares for its centennial celebration, beginning in 18 months, it is looking at public relations strategies that will continue to position it as the city’s leader in hospital care. As the public relations director for University Hospital, you have been asked to assess the potential impact of contemporary demographic trends in the United States and to recommend appropriate action in relation to the upcoming centennial celebration. Questions 1. What stakeholder groups would be involved? 2. What demographic characteristics would you expect to find in each group? 3. What responses do you want to induce in each stakeholder group? 4. What messages do you want to send to each group? 5. What channels of communication will you suggest to convey your messages to each stakeholder group? 6. What communication strategies would you expect to be most productive in this situation?

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Chapter 7 • Action and Communication

The public relations practitioner as part of the management team of an organization must be involved in the decision-making process to ensure that the organization takes positive, socially responsible actions. These actions, then, become the source of much of the organization’s communication. Often the process used to implement a public relations plan can be seen as an attempt to spread, or diffuse, information throughout the organization’s primary publics. The diffusion process is how new ideas are adopted in society. The critical paths through which new ideas, products, or technologies spread include awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. Mass media is key to the ﬁrst two of these paths, while personal contact may be more important in the last three paths. The concept of stakeholder management provides a good framework in which to visualize an organization’s environment and to differentiate among the stakeholders. The goal in stakeholder management is to develop maximum overall cooperation between stakeholders and the organization’s objectives. The public relations practitioner is the key communicator within an organization. Writing remains the primary tool of the communicator, but practitioners must master a variety of writing styles. While the inverted pyramid structure is especially important because it is used by most journalists, other styles, such as writing for the Internet, are also necessary. Another important aspect of the communication process is media selection. The three basic considerations for media selection are the needs and desires of the audiences, the optimum timing for the message, and the budget available for the medium. Finally, if you want your message to be heard, you need to make sure you get your audiences’ attention, understanding, retention, and action. Unfortunately, to be heard a message must go through a “funnel” of selective attention, selective perception, selective retention, and selective action. Therefore, the message is often lost at various stages in the process unless steps are taken to improve the likelihood that the message will be heard. The ﬁnal step in the process of public relations, measuring the effects of these messages, is discussed in chapter 9.

153

Summar y

active public aware public controlled media diffusion of information feedback intervening public latent public

1. “Opinions of the Publics,” Public Relations Society of America, New York, 16 mm film.

moderating public primary public selective attention selective perception stakeholder analysis stakeholders uncontrolled media

4. Ibid., p. 3. 5. Ibid.

2. “The Pepsi Hoax: What Went Right?” Case study prepared by Pepsi Cola Public Affairs, Somers, NY, 1993.

6. Frank Walsh, Public Relations Writer in a Computer Age (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1986), p. 10.

3. Ray Stitle, Delta Beverage, in a speech for the Memphis Chapter of PRSA, September 13, 1995.

7. Herbert F. Lionberger, Adoption of New Ideas and Practices (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1960), p. 32.

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For self-testing and additional chapter resources, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/lattimore4e.

Key Terms

Notes

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Part II • The Process 8. Mountain Bell Submission, Public Relations Society of America Silver Anvil Awards Competition, 1983. 9. Ibid. 10. Burton St. John, “Whither P.R. Writing?” Public Relations Tactics (April 2002). 11. Craig E. Aronoff et al., Getting Your Message Across (St. Paul, MN: West, 1981), pp. 28–31. 12. Cynthia M. King, “The Write Stuff: Teaching the Introductory Public Relations Writing Course,” Public Relations Review 27 (Winter 2001), pp. 27–46. 13. Candace White and Niranjan Raman, “The World Wide Web as a Public Relations Medium: The Use of Research, Planning and Evaluation in Web Site Development,” Public Relations Review 25 ( Winter 1999), p. 405. 14. Michael L. Kent and Maureen Taylor, “Building Dialogic Relationships Through the World Wide Web,” Public Relations Review 24 (Fall 1998), pp. 326–31.

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15. Marie E. Murgolo-Poore, Leyland F. Pitt, and Michael T. Ewing, “Intranet Effectiveness: A Public Relations Paperand-Pencil Checklist,” Public Relations Review 28 (February 2002), p. 113. 16. Scott Morrison, “The Rise of the Corporate Blogger,” Financial Times ( July 15, 2005), p. 8. 17. “Sun CEO sees competitive advantage in blogging,” retrieved from www.usatoday. com on June 25, 2006. 18. Morrison, “The Rise of the Corporate Blogger,” p. 8. 19. Suzanne Sparks FitzGerald, “Tips for Using Advertising in Public Relations,” Public Relations Quarterly 46 (Fall 2001), pp. 43–45. 20. Dan Lattimore and Derry Eynon, “How to Be Heard,” presentation for the Independent Petroleum Dealers Association, Vail, CO, 1976.

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C H A P T E R

4 8

Evaluating Public Relations Effectiveness OUTLINE PREVIEW EVALUATION FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES TRADITIONAL EVALUATION THE NEED FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH Integrating Case Study: Cedar Springs Community Hospital, Segment 4 MEASURING THE WORTH OF PUBLIC RELATIONS EFFORTS Measurements That Matter Measurement Strategies Sources of Measurement Error CLOSED-SYSTEM EVALUATION Pretest/Posttest Design Disadvantages of the Closed-System Method OPEN-SYSTEM EVALUATION The Short-Term and Continuing Approaches An Open-System Plan in Actual Practice EVALUATING WORD-OF-MOUTH/SOCIAL MEDIA CASE STUDY SUMMARY KEY TERMS NOTES

156

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PREVIEW “Hi, Karen! Did you find that book I recommended to you?” “Yes, thanks. It was in the library.” “Great! Did you get a chance to read it this weekend?” ”As a matter of fact, I read the whole thing. Well, I'll talk to you later.” Few of us would find a conversation like this very satisfying. If you recommend something to friends and they follow up, you naturally want to know whether they liked it. Likewise, public relations practitioners want to evaluate the public’s attitude following a new awareness of a product or service. It is usually not enough to know simply that the audience is now informed; evaluation of results should be thorough and specific enough to tell us whether changes in attitude or behavior are likely to result. Evaluation is an essential step practitioners take to assess the effectiveness of a public relations effort, to quantify that effectiveness for management, and to adjust tactics if necessary while the campaign is still in progress. Evaluation is all about demonstrating to management the value of public relations. In this process, value is even more important than volume. The number of news releases sent to the media, or even the number used by the media, is no longer an acceptable measure of effectiveness. Rather, practitioners today gauge effectiveness by measuring changes in the public’s behavior, attitudes, knowledge, and awareness. Some of the tools that capture these data are impact analysis, audience coverage, audience response, campaign impact, and environmental mediation. In this chapter we talk about an open-system model for measuring public relations effectiveness; this takes into account environmental factors and before-and-after comparisons. 157

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158

Part II • The Process

We have divided the process of public relations into four related functions: research, planning, action and communication, and evaluation. In reality, however, the methods discussed in chapter 5 and the material in this chapter are simply different applications of the research function. For the sake of illustration and emphasis, we have separated the two chapters, but much of what we say here about evaluating public relations programs relates directly back to the research methods mentioned in chapter 5. Also, as noted earlier, the importance of the Internet and Web sites to effective public relations is widely accepted. However, early research seems to indicate that few, if any, practitioners use the basics of public relations research, planning, and evaluation of Web management.1

EVALUATION FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES

Most public relations efforts in the past have not been measured, or not been measured adequately, to provide answers to key questions such as the following: Why did the campaign work or fail? What were the most effective tactics? and What would have happened had we made a change midway through the campaign? Public relations agencies and departments have often not been able to sell management or clients on the necessity of evaluation. One noted practitioner has argued that less than 5 percent of public relations programs have been effectively evaluated.2 Traditionally, public relations evaluation has been used to measure output, including the number of press releases used, the hits on the Web site, and the number of video clips used. This is typically the implementation phase of a public relations effort. These implementation measures of output are necessary to provide input into the evaluation, but they are not sufﬁcient to provide an assessment of quality, cost-effectiveness, or

TRADITIONAL EVALUATION

An Internet survey company is often used to create an online evaluation survey.

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opportunities for improvement. Instead, the practitioner should be measuring changes in behavior, attitudes, knowledge, and awareness.3 There are at least three levels of evaluation of public relations efforts: preparation for the public relations program, implementation of the effort, and impact analysis of the program. 1.

Preparation. Evaluating preparation may involve examining the adequacy of the background information that you gathered, the appropriateness of the message content and format, and the quality of the messages. Implementation. Evaluating implementation involves measuring the number of messages sent (distribution), the number of messages placed in the media, the number of people receiving the message, and the number of people who attend to the message. Impact. When impact is evaluated, practitioners measure the number or percentage of the audience who learn the message content, who change their opinions, who change attitudes, and who behave in the desired fashion. They may also determine if the problem is solved or the goal is achieved.

To move toward a more successful evaluation effort, all three levels must be examined, not just the traditional implementation measures.

Although presented last, evaluation is not the ﬁnal stage of the pubTHE NEED FOR lic relations process. In actual practice, evaluation is frequently EVALUATION RESEARCH the beginning of a new effort. The research function overlaps the planning, action, and evaluation functions. It is an interdependent process that, once set in motion, has no beginning or end. To help explain how evaluation can be involved in virtually every phase of a program, ﬁgure 8.1 is divided into three evaluation segments: 1.

Implementation Checking. The central question in this start-up assessment step is, To what degree is the target audience being reached? Regardless of how complete the planning process may have been, it will still be necessary to determine the difference between planned and actual implementation. Variations from the original plan must be analyzed and explained so that a decision can be made to either modify the plan or correct the discrepancies. In-Progress Monitoring. Periodically during the program, actions undertaken should be reviewed and, if necessary, modified. This process is often called formative evaluation. These reviews can be planned for regular intervals to determine the effectiveness of the program in meeting its objectives. Any unanticipated results can be assessed and factored into the evaluation. The variance between actual and anticipated progress at each point can be examined for its effect on the overall outcome. Regular monitoring helps determine why some results differ significantly from the original plan and prevents unwelcome surprises. Outcome Evaluation. The final step is to assess the program’s end results. This process is called summative evaluation. Once again, objectives and results are compared to determine the variance. At this point, all prior evaluations become important for explaining the context in which the program was implemented and for interpreting the results. An evaluation report transmits this information, along with any suggestions for planning future efforts, to an appropriate decision maker.

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Part II • The Process In-progress monitoring

Implementation checking

Outcome evaluation

Start-up assessment (planned vs. actual)

Periodic review of objectives and strategies

1. Review objectives 2. Assess current environment 3. Modify objectives if needed

1. Determine progress toward objectives 2. Assess unanticipated results 3. Determine variance between actual and planned progress 4. Specify effects of variance 5. Define reasons for variance

Assess final results

Compare results to objectives

Program initiation 1. Check closeness of fit with plan 2. Define discrepancies 3. Explain discrepancies

Interpret variance between results and objectives within context of environment

(Closed) System type?

(Yes)

Progress report

Continue? (Open) Correct discrepancies

Modify plan

(No) (Yes)

Progress report

Stop

Present evaluation report with suggested changes for future

Transmit report to management

FIGURE 8.1 Components of an Evaluation Plan

Research in public relations should be continuous, constantly evaluating the process and its environment and providing new information to sustain it. Learning about the failures and successes of a public relations campaign provides information that can be used to plan more precisely for the next effort. Evaluation research is also valuable in assessing an existing campaign.4 This point is illustrated in the Cedar Springs Community Hospital Integrating Case Study. Research made a tremendous impact on the planning and action steps taken in the case. In this ﬁnal episode, research helps determine the effectiveness of the total effort.

Integrating Case Study

Cedar Springs Community Hospital Segment 4

pproximately one year after the program to improve the perceptions of employees regarding the quality of patient care began, follow-up research was conducted. This evaluation process began at the same point as the original research. Using the methodology of the initial employee survey, 300 names were once again chosen at random from the 1,226 employees. Each of the

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selected individuals received a questionnaire in the mail similar to the one used to begin the process. Four key factors from the original survey had been selected as objectives for improvement during the preceding year. These same factors were measured again in the evaluation survey to determine how much progress had been made. The following comparisons were produced: Factors

1. Quality of care 2. Patients’ understanding of procedures 3. Courtesy and respect shown to patients 4. Patient call lights answered

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